Anne Boleyn: Difference between revisions

For the heavy metal singer, see; Ann Boleyn (singer)

Anne Boleyn
Queen Consort of England
Anne Boleyn
Spouse	Henry VIII
Issue	Elizabeth I
Father	Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire
Mother	Lady Elizabeth Howard

Template:Anglican Portal

Anne Boleyn, 1st Marquess of Pembroke^[1] (1501/1507–19 May 1536) was a Queen Consort of England, the second wife of King Henry VIII and the mother of Queen Elizabeth I. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution, made her a key player in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation. The daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Boleyn (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), Anne was of more noble birth than either Jane Seymour or Catherine Parr, two of Henry VIII's later wives. She was educated in Europe, largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France. She returned to England in 1522.

In 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured with Anne and began his pursuit of her. Anne resisted the king's attempts to seduce her and refused to become his mistress, as her sister, Mary Boleyn, had done. It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure an annulment from his wife, Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII was unlikely to give the king an annulment, the breaking of the power of the Roman Catholic Church in England began.

Anne Boleyn had Thomas Wolsey dismissed from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant and there was a second wedding service, which took place in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the pope launched sentences of excommunication against the King and the archbishop. As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the King's control.

Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533. Later that year, on 7 September, Anne gave birth to a baby girl who would one day reign as Queen Elizabeth I of England. When Anne failed to quickly produce a male heir, her fate was sealed and a plot was hatched by Thomas Cromwell to do away with her.

Although the evidence against her was unconvincing, Anne was beheaded on charges of adultery, incest, and high treason in 1536. Following the coronation of her daughter Elizabeth as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has remained strong in the popular memory and Anne has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had."^[2]

Anne was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, later first Earl of Wiltshire and first Earl of Ormonde, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Boleyn (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), daughter of the 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Boleyn was a respected diplomat with a gift for languages; he was also a favourite of Henry VII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. A lack of parish records from the period has made it impossible to establish Anne Boleyn's date of birth. Evidence from the 16th century is contradictory, with several dates having been put forward by various authors. An Italian historian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499, while Sir Thomas More's son-in-law, William Roper, suggested a much later date of 1512. As with Anne herself, it is not known for certain when her two siblings were born, but it seems clear that her sister, Mary Boleyn, was older than she was. Mary’s children clearly believed their mother had been the elder sister; as did Anne’s daughter, Elizabeth.^[3] Their brother George was born some time around 1504.^[4]

The academic debate of Anne's birthdate centres around two key dates: 1501 and 1507. Eric Ives, a British historian and legal expert, promotes the 1501 date, while Retha Warnicke, an American scholar who has also written a biography of Anne, prefers 1507. The key piece of surviving written evidence in the argument is a letter Anne wrote sometime in 1514.^[5] She wrote it in French (her second language) to her father, who was still living in England while Anne was completing her education in the Netherlands. Ives argues that the style of the letter and its mature handwriting prove that Anne must have been about thirteen at the time of its composition. This would also be around the minimum age that a girl could be a maid of honour, as Anne was to the regent, Margaret of Austria. This is supported by claims by a chronicler from the late 16th century, who wrote that Anne was twenty when she returned from France.^[6] These findings are contested by Warnicke in several books and articles, but the evidence still does not conclusively support either date.^[7]

Anne's great grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies and a knight. Tradition held that one of them, Geoffrey Boleyn, may have been a wool merchant prior to becoming Lord Mayor.^[8][9] This is disputed by some historians,^[10] who make the case that the family had held a title for four generations.^[11] What is known is that at the time of Anne’s birth, the Boleyn family was considered one of the most respected in the English aristocracy. Among her relatives, she numbered the Howards, one of the most pre-eminent families in the land. She was certainly of more noble birth than either Jane Seymour or Catherine Parr, two of Henry VIII's later wives.^[12]

Anne's father had continued his diplomatic career under Henry VIII. In Europe, Thomas Boleyn's charm won many admirers, including Archduchess Margaret of Austria, the daughter of Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor. She was currently ruling the Netherlands on behalf of her father and she was so impressed with Boleyn that she offered his daughter Anne a place in her household. Ordinarily, a girl had to be 12 years old to have such an honour, but Anne may have been somewhat younger, as the archduchess affectionately referred to her as "La petite Boleyn". It is not known if the archduchess was refering to Anne's age or her stature.^[14] She made a good impression in the Netherlands with her manners and studiousness and lived there from the spring of 1513 until her father arranged for her to continue her education in Paris in the winter of 1514.

In France, Anne was a favoured lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France and also acted as an interpreter whenever any high-ranking English visitors came to the French court. In the queen's household, she completed her study of French and developed an interest in fashion and religious philosophy. She also acquired a thorough knowledge of French culture and etiquette.^[15]

Her education in France would later prove to be of great value. Anne would make a good impression with her fashion sense, inspiring many new trends among the ladies of England. William Forrest, author of a contemporary poem about Catherine of Aragon, complimented Anne's "passing excellent" skill as a dancer. "Here," he wrote, "was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go."^[16] These graces were important, as Anne was not considered to have conventional beauty. One historian compiled a number of descriptions and concluded:

She was never described as a great beauty, but even those who loathed her admitted that she had a dramatic allure. Her dark complexion and black hair gave her an exotic aura in a culture that saw milk-white paleness as essential to beauty. Her eyes were especially striking: 'black and beautiful' wrote one contemporary, while another averred they were 'always most attractive,' and that she 'well knew how to use them with effect.'^[17]

People seemed primarily attracted by Anne's charisma:

Anne’s charm lay not so much in her physical appearance as in her vivacious personality, her gracefulness, her quick wit and other accomplishments. She was petite in stature, and had an appealing fragility about her...she shone at singing, making music, dancing and conversation...Not surprisingly, the young men of the court swarmed around her.^[18]

Anne's experience in France also made her a devout Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance humanism, although calling her a Protestant would be an overstatement. While she would later hold the position that the papacy was a corrupting influence on Christianity, her conservative tendencies could be seen in her devotion to the Virgin Mary.^[19] At this stage of her life, Anne was described as "sweet and cheerful". She enjoyed gambling, drinking wine, and gossiping.^[20] She was brave and emotional however, and Anne could also be extravagant, neurotic, vindictive, and bad-tempered:

To us she appears inconsistent—religious yet aggressive, calculating yet emotional, with the light touch of the courtier yet the strong grip of the politician...A woman in her own right—taken on her own terms in a man’s world; a woman who mobilized her education, her style and her presence to outweigh the disadvantages of her sex; of only moderate good looks, but taking a court and a king by storm. Perhaps, in the end, it is Thomas Cromwell’s assessment that comes nearest: intelligence, spirit and courage.^[21]

Her European education ended in the winter of 1521, when Anne was summoned back to England on her father's orders. She sailed from Calais, which was then still an English possession, in January 1522.^[22]

Anne was recalled to England was to marry her Irish cousin, James Butler. This was in attempt to settle a dispute involving the title and estates of the Earl of Ormonde. In 1515, Thomas Butler, 7th Earl of Ormonde died, leaving his two daughters Margaret Boleyn and Anne St. Leger as co-heiresses. In Ireland, a remote cousin Piers Butler had contested the old earl's will and claimed the earldom for himself. Thomas Boleyn, being the son of the eldest daughter, felt that the title instead belonged to him and protested to his brother-in-law, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, who spoke to the king about the matter. Fearful that this dispute could very well provide the spark to ignite civil war in Ireland, Henry VIII sought to resolve the problem by arranging an alliance between Piers' son, James, and Anne Boleyn. She would bring her Ormonde inheritance as dowry and thus end the dispute. The plan ended in failure, perhaps Thomas Boleyn was hoping for a grander marriage for his daughter. Whatever the reason, the marriage negotiations came to a complete halt.^[23]

Anne's sister, Mary, was at this time the King of England's lover. Mary was the wife of Sir William Carey, a gentleman of the king's Privy Chamber. It has long been suspected that one or both of Mary Boleyn's children were fathered by Henry VIII although some writers, such as Alison Weir, now question whether Henry Carey, Mary's son, was actually the King's son.^[24] Anne Boleyn was sent to the court of Henry VIII as a maid-of-honour to Queen Catherine of Aragon. Anne made her début at a masquerade ball in March 1522, where she was described as a woman of "charm, style and wit, and will and savagery which make her a match for Henry".^[25] There she performed an elaborate dance accompanying the king's younger sister, several other great ladies of the court and her own sister. Within a few weeks of this performance, Anne was known as the most fashionable and accomplished woman at the court and she has been referred to as a "glass of fashion".^[26]

During this time, Anne was courted by Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Northumberland. The exact nature of their relationship is unclear. A priest, George Cavendish, who disliked Anne but was friendly with Henry Percy, later stated categorically that the two had not been lovers. It thus seems unlikely that their relationship was sexual.^[27] The romance was broken off in 1523 when Percy's father refused to support their engagement. According to George Cavendish, Anne was briefly sent from court to her family’s countryside estates, but it is not known for how long. When she returned to court she gathered a group of female friends and male admirers around herself, but became famous for her ability to keep men at arm's length. The poet Sir Thomas Wyatt, wrote about her in the poem, Whoso List to Hunt,^[28] in which he described her as unobtainable and headstrong, despite seeming demure and quiet.^[29] In 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured with her and began his pursuit.^[30]

Anne resisted his attempts to seduce her and she refused to become his mistress, as her sister had. The King was all the more attracted to her because of this refusal and he pursued her relentlessly. Anne continued to reject the King’s initial advances by saying, “I beseech your highness most earnestly to desist, and to this my answer in good part. I would rather lose my life than my honesty.”^[31]

It is possible that the idea of annulment had suggested itself to the King much earlier than this, and it is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a male heir. Before Henry's father Henry VII ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. The King had no living sons: all Catherine of Aragon's children except his daughter Mary had died in infancy.^[32] Anne saw her opportunity in Henry's infatuation and determined that she would only yield as his acknowledged queen.^[33]

In 1528, sweating sickness broke out with great severity. In London the mortality was great and the court was dispersed. The king left London, frequently changing his residence. It is believed that Anne contracted and survived the sickness in June. Henry seems to have sent his own physician to Hever Castle to care for her.^[34] It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure an annulment from Catherine.^[35] Henry set his hopes upon a direct appeal to the Holy See, acting in this independently of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, to whom he at first communicated nothing of his plans so far as they related to Anne. William Knight, the king's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment of his marriage with Catherine, on the ground that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences. Henry also petitioned, in the event of his becoming free, a dispensation to contract a new marriage with any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection. This clearly had reference to Anne.^[33]

As the pope was at that time the prisoner of Emperor Charles V, Knight had some difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end the king's envoy had to return without accomplishing much, though the conditional dispensation for a new marriage was granted. Henry had now no choice but to put his great matter into the hands of Thomas Wolsey, and Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in the King's favour.^[33] How far the pope was influenced by Charles V in his resistence, it is difficult to say, but it is clear Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to give him an annulment from the Emperor's aunt.^[36] The pope forbade Henry to proceed to a new marriage before a decision was given in Rome. Convinced that he was treacherous, Anne Boleyn maintained pressure until Wolsey was dismissed from public office in 1529. After being dismissed, the cardinal begged her to help him return to power, but she refused. He then began a secret plot to have Anne forced into exile and began communication with Queen Catherine and the Pope, to that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and had it not been for his death from a terminal illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason.^[37] A year later, Queen Catherine was banished from court and her old rooms were given to Anne. With Wolsey gone, Anne now had considerable power over government appointments and political matters. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed to the vacant position. Through the intervention of the King of France, this was conceded by Rome, the pallium being granted to him by Clement.^[38]

The breaking of the power of Rome in England proceeded little by little. In 1532, a supporter of Anne, Thomas Cromwell, brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.^[39]

Six wives of Henry VIII
and years of marriage

• v
• t
• e

Catherine of Aragon
m. 1509–1533

Anne Boleyn
m. 1533–1536

Jane Seymour
m. 1536–1537

Anne of Cleves
m. 1540

Catherine Howard
m. 1540–1542

Catherine Parr
m. 1543–1547

During this period, Boleyn also played a role in England's international position by solidifying an alliance with France. She established an excellent rapport with the French ambassador, Gilles de la Pommeraie, who was captivated by her. Anne and Henry attended a meeting with the French king at Calais in the winter of 1532, in which Henry hoped he could enlist the support of Francis I of France for his new marriage. Anne's position continued to rise. On the first day of September 1532, she was created Marquess of Pembroke, a title she held in her own right. In October, she held a position of honor at meetings between Henry and the French King in Calais. Anne’s family also profited from the relationship; her father, already Viscount Rochford, was created Earl of Wiltshire and, by means of a deal made by the king with Anne’s Irish cousins, the Butler family, Earl of Ormonde. Thanks to Anne’s intervention, her widowed sister Mary received an annual pension of £100, and Mary's son, Henry Carey, received his education in a prestigious Cistercian monastery. The conference at Calais was a political triumph, since the French government gave its support for Henry's re-marriage.^[40] Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service.^[41] She soon became pregnant and, as was the custom with royalty, there was a second wedding service, which took place in London on 25 January 1533. Events now began to move at a quick pace. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid.^[42]

Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. Meanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of præmunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of launching sentences of excommunication against the King and Cranmer, declaring at the same time the archbishop's decree of annulment to be invalid and the marriage with Anne null and void. The papal nuncio was withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome were broken off.^[38] In response, the Peter's Pence Act was passed in England and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.^[43] In defiance of the Pope, the Church of England was now under Henry’s control, not Rome's. Anne, Cranmer, and Cromwell were delighted at this development. News of the start of the English Reformation spread through Europe, and Anne was hailed as a heroine by some Protestant figures. It is said that even Martin Luther viewed her rise to the throne as a good sign.^[44]

After her coronation, Anne settled into a quiet routine at the king's favourite residence, Greenwich Palace, to prepare for the birth of her first baby. The child was born slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. Anne had given birth to a girl who was christened Elizabeth, in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York.^[45]

The little princess was given a splendid christening, but Anne feared that Catherine's daughter, Mary, would threaten Elizabeth’s position. Henry soothed his wife's fears by separating Mary from her many servants and sending her to Hatfield House, where Princess Elizabeth would be living with her own magnificent staff of servants. The country air was better for the baby's health, and Anne was an affectionate mother who regularly visited her daughter.^[46]

The new queen had a larger staff of servants than Catherine had kept. There were over 250 servants to tend to her personal needs, everyone from priests to stable-boys. There were also over 60 maids-of-honour who served her and accompanied her to social events. She also employed several priests who acted as her confessors, chaplains, and religious advisers. One of these was the Matthew Parker, who would become one of the chief architects of the Anglican thought during the reign of Anne's daughter Elizabeth I.^[47]

The king and queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Henry's frequent infidelities greatly upset his new wife, who reacted with tears and rage to each new mistress. For his part, Henry disliked Anne’s constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine.^[48]

Anne, unaware of the dangerous position she was now in, presided over a magnificent court. She spent huge sums on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich-feather fans, riding equipment, and the finest furniture and upholstery from across the world. Numerous palaces were renovated to suit her extravagant tastes.^[49] Anne also began to share in the blame for the tyranny of her husband’s government. Public opinion of her dropped following her failure to produce a son for the king. It sank even lower following the executions in 1535 of her enemies, the Bishop of Rochester, John Fisher, and Sir Thomas More.^[50] Scenes of friction also took place between the queen and her stepdaughter, Princess Mary, whom Anne called "the cursed bastard". She confiscated Mary's jewels and even spoke of having her poisoned.^[51]

On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Upon hearing the news of her death, Henry and Anne reportedly decked themselves in bright yellow clothing. Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine's death. Anne, for her part, attempted to make peace with Princess Mary as a line of defence.

The queen, pregnant again, was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Her life could be in danger, as with both wives dead, Henry would be free to remarry without any taint of illegality. Mary rebuffed these overtures, perhaps because rumours circulated that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne and/or Henry. The rumours were born after discovery during her embalming that her heart was blackened. Modern medical experts are in agreement that the blackness of Catherine's heart was not due to poisoning, but due to cancer of the heart, something which was not understood at the time.^[52]

Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured. It seemed for a time that the King's life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the queen she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old. This happened on the very day of Catherine’s funeral, 29 January 1536. According to most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.^[53]

Given the King's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536.^[54] Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536.^[55] As Anne recovered from what would be her final miscarriage, Henry declared that his marriage had been the product of witchcraft. The King's new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into new quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Jane Seymour's brother.^[56]

In the final days of April, a Flemish musician in Anne's service named Mark Smeaton was arrested and tortured by Thomas Cromwell. He initially denied that he was the queen’s lover, but under torture he confessed. He also provided the name of another courtier, Sir Henry Norris, an old friend of both Anne and the king. Norris was arrested on May Day, but since he was an aristocrat he could not be tortured. He denied his guilt and swore that Boleyn was also innocent. Sir Francis Weston was arrested two days later on the same charge. William Brereton, a groom of the king's privy chamber, was also apprehended on grounds of adultery. The final accused was Queen Anne's own brother, arrested on charges of incest and treason, accused of having a sexual relationship with his sister over the last twelve months.^[57]

On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested at luncheon and taken to the Tower of London. In the Tower, she suffered a minor nervous breakdown, demanding to know full details of her family's whereabouts and the charges against her. Four of the men were tried in Westminster on 12 May 1536. Weston, Brereton and Norris publicly maintained their innocence and only the tortured Smeaton supported the Crown by pleading guilty. Three days later, Anne and George Boleyn were tried separately in the Tower of London. She was accused of adultery, incest and high treason.^[58]

Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death by the peers. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on May 17 1536. Lord and Lady Kingston, the keepers of the Tower, reported that Anne seemed very happy and ready to be done with life. The king commuted Anne's sentence from burning to beheading and employed a swordsman from St Omer for the execution, rather than having a queen beheaded with the common axe. They came for Anne on the morning of May 19 to take her to the Tower Green, where she was to be afforded the dignity of a private execution.^[59] Anthony Kingston, the Constable of the Tower, wrote:

This morning she sent for me, that I might be with her at such time as she received the good Lord, to the intent I should hear her speak as touching her innocency alway to be clear. And in the writing of this she sent for me, and at my coming she said, 'Mr. Kingston, I hear I shall not die afore noon, and I am very sorry therefore, for I thought to be dead by this time and past my pain.' I told her it should be no pain, it was so little. And then she said, 'I heard say the executioner was very good, and I have a little neck,' and then put her hands about it, laughing heartily. I have seen many men and also women executed, and that they have been in great sorrow, and to my knowledge this lady has much joy in death. Sir, her almoner is continually with her, and had been since two o'clock after midnight.^[60]

She wore a red petticoat under a loose, dark grey gown of damask trimmed in fur. Her dark hair was bound up and she wore her customary French headdress.^[61] She made a short speech:

Good Christian people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law, and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak anything of that, whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord. And if any person will meddle of my cause, I require them to judge the best. And thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to pray for me. O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my soul.^[62]

She then knelt upright, in the French style of executions. Her final prayer consisted of her repeating, "To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord Jesus receive my soul." Her ladies removed the headdress and tied a blindfold over her eyes. The swordsman shouted, "Where is my sword?" and then beheaded her so she would not know that the sword was coming. The execution was swift and consisted of a single stroke.^[63] Across the river, Alexander Ales accompanied Thomas Cranmer as he walked in the gardens of Lambeth Palace. When they heard the cannon fire from the Tower, signalling the death of Anne, the archbishop looked up and proclaimed: "She who has been the English queen on earth will today become a Heaven's queen." He then sat down on a bench and wept.^[64] When the charges were first brought against Anne, Cranmer had expressed his astonishment to Henry and his belief that "she should not be culpable." Still, Cranmer felt vulnerable because of his closeness to the queen. On the night before the execution, he had declared Henry's marriage to Anne to have been void, like Catherine's before her. He made no serious attempt to save Anne's life.^[65]

Henry had failed to provide a proper coffin for Anne, and so her body and head were put into an arrow chest and buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Her body was one that was identified in renovations of the chapel during the reign of Queen Victoria and Anne's final resting place is now marked in the marble floor.

After her death, a number of myths sprung up about Anne. Many of these stories had their roots in anti-Anglican works written by Roman Catholics. It was reported by some that Anne suffered from polydactyly, having six fingers on her left hand. Others claimed she had a birthmark or mole on her neck that was at all times hidden by a jewel. Although the first legend is popular, there is no contemporary evidence to support it. None of the many eyewitness accounts of Anne Boleyn’s appearance—some of them meticulously detailed—mention any deformities, let alone a sixth finger. Moreover, as physical deformities were generally interpreted as a sign of evil, it is difficult to believe that Anne Boleyn would have gained Henry's romantic attention had she had any deformities.^[66]

Following the coronation of her daughter as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe, who argued that Anne had saved England from the evils of Roman Catholicism and that God had provided proof of her innocence and virtue by making sure her daughter, Elizabeth I, later became Queen regnant. Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has remained in the popular memory and Anne has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had."^[67]

• List of English consorts

• The Reformation Parliament, 1529-1536 by Stanford E. Lehmberg (1970).
• Tower Of London: A History of England From the Norman Conquest by Christopher Hibbert (1971).
• Henry VIII and his Court by Neville Williams (1971).
• The Life and Times of Henry VIII by Robert Lacey (1972).
• Henry VIII by J. J. Scarisbrick (1972) ISBN 978-0520011304.
• Anne Boleyn by Professor Eric Ives (1986).
• The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn: Family politics at the court of Henry VIII by R.M. Warnicke (1989) ISBN 0521406773.
• The Six Wives of Henry VIII by Alison Weir (1991) ISBN 0802136834.
• The Wives of Henry VIII by Lady Antonia Fraser (1992) ISBN 067973001X.
• English Reformations by Christopher Haigh (1993).
• Divorced Beheaded Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII by Karen Lindsey (1995) ISBN 0201408236.
• Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century by T. A. Morris (1998).
• New Worlds, Lost Worlds by Susan Brigden (2000).
• A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World?: 3000 BC–AD 1603 by Simon Schama (19 October 2000) ISBN 0-563-38497-2.
• British Kings & Queens by Mike Ashley (2002) ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.
• Henry VIII: The King and His Court by Alison Weir (2002) ISBN 034543708X.
• Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII by David Starkey (2003) ISBN 0060005505.
• Anne Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen by Joanna Denny (2004) ISBN 074995051X.
• The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn by Eric Ives (2004) ISBN 1405134631.

• Anne Boleyn by Marie-Louise Bruce (1972).
• The Challenge of Anne Boleyn by Hester W. Chapman (1974).
• The Politics of Marriage by David Loades (1994).
• Doomed Queen Anne by Caroline Meyer (2002).

• A geo-biography tour of the Six Wives of Henry VIII on Google Earth

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