Brian Boru: Difference between revisions

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Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig (better known as Brian Boru) was the 175th High King of Ireland. Although the exact details of his birth are unknown, was probably born in 926 near Killaloe (Kincora) (in modern County Clare). His father was Cennétig mac Lorcáin, King of Thomond and his mother was Bé Binn ingen Aurchada, daughter of the King of West Connacht. When Brian's father died, the kingship of Thomond passed to his older brother, Mathgamain, and when Mathgamain was killed in 976, Brian replaced him. Subsequently he became the King of the entire province of Munster.

By 1002 Boru had forced the reigning High King of Ireland, Mael Sechlainn mac Domnall II, to surrender his title to him. Boru sought to make good that title in a way that previous holders of the title of High-King had not; to make himself the actual ruler of Ireland rather than in name only. By 1011 all of the regional rulers of Ireland recognised him as their superior, this however was short lived. The following year the King of the province of Leinster rebelled against Boru's authority and, although his forces were decisively defeated in 1014 at the Battle of Clontarf, Boru was killed along with most of the leaders of province of Munster.

The origin of his cognomen Boru or Boruma (Tributes) is believed to relate to a crossing point on the river Shannon where a cattle-tribute was driven from his sept, the Dal Cais to the larger sept to which they owed allegiance, the Eoganacht. Later legends originated to suggest that is was because he collected monies from the minor rulers of Ireland and used these to rebuild monasteries and libraries that had been destroyed during Norsemen (Viking) invasions.

The popular image of Boru as a ruler who managed to unify the regional leaders of Ireland in order to free the land from a 'Danish' (Viking) occupation originates from the powerful influence of a work of 12th century century propaganda, Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh (The War of the Irish with the Foreigners) in which Boru takes the leading role. This work is thought to have been commissioned by Boru's great-grandson, Muirchertach Ua Briain as a means of justifying the Ua Briain (O'Brien) claim to the High-Kingship, a title upon which the Ui Neill (O'Neill) dynasty had had a monopoly.

The influence of this work on both scholarly and popular authors cannot be exaggerated. Up until the 1970s nearly all scholarly writing concerning the Vikings' activities in Ireland and the career of King Brian Boru accepted the claims of Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh at face value. Most popular authors, often relying on older books for their information, continue to perpetuate a mythical version of Boru's career.

King Brian Boru did not free Ireland from a Norse (Viking) occupation simply because it was never conquered by the Vikings. To be sure, in the last decade of the 8th century Norse raiders began attacking targets in Ireland and, beginning in the mid-9th century, these raiders established fortified camps that grew into Ireland's first cities: Dublin, Limerick, Waterford, Wexford, and Cork. But after the passage of only a few generations, the Norse citizens of these cities had converted to Christianity, inter-married with the Irish, and, to one degree or another, adopted the Irish language, dress, and customs, thus becoming what historians refer to as the 'Hiberno-Norse'. These Hiberno-Norse cities were fully integrated into the political scene in Ireland long before the birth of Brian Boru. They suffered attacks from some Irish rulers, made alliances with others, and ultimately came under the control of the kings of the Provinces of Meath, Leinster, or Munster, who choose which among Hiberno-Norse would rule these cities to serve as their loyal subordinates. Rather than conquering Ireland, the Vikings who initially attacked and subsequently settled in Ireland were, in fact, assimilated by the Irish.

Main article: The Dal gCais.

Brian Boru was from a group of people so obscure that they adopted a fictitious, but more prestigious name, the 'Dal gCais' (Dalcassians in the plural).

They occupied a territory that straddled the largest river in Ireland, the River Shannon, a territory that would later be known as the Kingdom of Thomond and that incorporates portions of the present day counties of Clare and Limerick. The Shannon served as an easy route by which raids could be made against the province of Connacht (to the river's west) and Meath (to its east). Both Boru's father, Cennétig mac Lorcáin and his older brother Mathgamain conducted river-borne raids, raids in which the young Boru would undoubtedly have participated. This was probably the root of Boru's appreciation for naval forces in his later career.

Another important influence upon the Dalcassians, including Brian Boru, was the presence of the Hiberno-Norse city of Limerick on an island in the estuary of the Shannon River (known today as King's Island). Undoubtedly the Hiberno-Norse of Limerick and the Dalcassians frequently came to blows, but its unlikely that the relationship was always one of hostility; there was probably peaceful contact as well, such as trade. The Dalcassians may have benefited from these interactions, from which they would have been exposed to Norse innovations, such as superior weapons and ship design, all factors that may have contributed to their growing power.

In 964, Brian Boru's older brother, Mathgamain, claimed control over the entire province of Munster by capturing the Rock of Cashel, capital of the rival Eoganacht dynasty. The Eoganacht King, Mael Muad, organised an anti-Dalcassian alliance that included at least one other Irish ruler in Munster, and Ivar, the ruler of Limerick. At the Battle of Sulchoid a Dalcassian army led by Mathgamain and Boru decisively defeated the Hiberno-Norse army of Limerick and, following up their victory, looted and burned the city. The Dalcassian victory at Sulchoid may have led King Mael Muad to decide that deception might succeed where an open contest of strength on the battlefield had failed. In 976 Mathgamain, attended what was supposed to be a peaceful meeting for reconciliation, where he was seized and murdered. It was under these unpromising circumstances that Boru, at age thirty-five, became the new leader of the Dalcassians.

Boru immediately set about avenging his brother's death and reinstating the control of the Dalcassians over the province of Munster. In quick succession, Brian attacked and defeated the Hiberno-Norse of Limerick, Mael Muad's Irish allies, and finally, Mael Muad himself. Boru's approach to establishing his control over the Munster demonstrated features that would become characteristic of all of his wars: he seized the initiative, defeating his enemies before they could join forces to overwhelm him, and although he was ruthless and horribly brutal by our standards, he sought reconciliation in the aftermath of victory rather than continuing hostility. After he had killed both the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, and Ivar's successor, he allowed the Hiberno-Norse in Limerick to remain in their settlement. After he had killed Mael Muad, he treated his son and successor, Cain, with great respect, giving Cain the hand of his daughter, Sadhbh in marriage. Cain remained a faithful ally for the rest of his life.

Having established unchallenged rule over his home Province of Munster, King Brian Boru then turned to extending his authority over the neighboring provinces of Leinster in the east and Connacht in the west. By doing so, he came into conflict with High-King Mael Sechlainn mac Domnall II, who's power base was the Province of Meath. For the next fifteen years, from 982 to 997, High-King Mael Sechlainn repeatedly led armies into Leinster and Munster, while King Brian, like his father and brother before him, led his naval forces up the Shannon to attack Connacht and Meath on either side of the river. King Brian suffered quite a few reverses in this struggle, but he appears to have learned from his setbacks. He developed a military strategy that would serve him well throughout his career; the coordinated use of forces on both land and water, including on rivers and along Ireland's coast. King Brian's naval forces, which included contingents supplied by the Hiberno-Norse cities that he brought under his control, provided both indirect and direct support for his forces on land. Indirect support involved a fleet making a diversionary attack on an enemy in a location far away from where King Brian planned to strike with his army. Direct support involved naval forces acting as one arm in a strategic pincer, the army forming the other arm.

In 996 King Brian finally managed to control the Province of Leinster, which may have been what led High-King Mael Sechlainn to reach a compromise with him in the following year. By recognising King Brian's authority over 'Leth Moga', that is, the Southern Half, which included the Provinces of Munster and Leinster (and the Hiberno-Norse cities within them), High-King Mael Sechlainn was simply accepting the reality that confronted him. Sechlainn retained control over 'Leth Cuinn', that is, the Northern Half, which consisted of the Provinces of Meath, Connacht, and Ulster.

Precisely because he had submitted to King Brian's authority, the King of Leinster was overthrown in 998 and replaced by Mael Mordha. Given the circumstances under which Mael Mordha had been made the new King of Leinster, it's not surprising that he launched an open rebellion against King Brian's authority. In response, King Brian assembled the forces of the Province of Munster with the intention of laying siege to the Hiberno-Norse city of Dublin, which was ruled by Mael Mordha's ally and cousin, Sitric 'Silkbeard'. Together Mael Mordha and Sitric determined to meet King Brian's army in battle rather than risk a siege. Thus, in 999, the opposing armies fought the Battle of Glen Mama. The Annals, which were the records of yearly events kept by the various monasteries, all agree that this was a particularly fierce and bloody engagement, although claims that it lasted from morning until midnight, or that the combined Leinster-Dublin force lost 4,000 killed are open to question. In any case, King Brian followed up his victory, as he and his brother had in the aftermath of the Battle of Sulchoid thirty-two years before, by capturing and sacking the enemy's city. Once again, however, King Brian opted for reconciliation; he requested Sitric to return and resume his position as ruler of Dublin, giving Sitric the hand of one of his daughters in marriage, just as he had with the Eoganacht King, Cain. It may have been on this occasion that King Brian married Sitric's mother and Mael Mordha's sister Gormflaith, the former wife of High-King Mael Sechlainn.

King Brian made it clear that his ambitions had not been satisfied by the compromise of 997 when, in the year 1000, he led a combined Munster-Leinster-Dublin army in an attack on High-King Mael Sechlainn's home Province of Meath. The struggle over who would control all of Ireland was renewed. High-King Mael Sechlainn's most important ally was the King of the Province of Connacht, Cathal Ua Conchobhair (O'Connor), but this presented a number of problems. The Provinces of Meath and Connacht were separated by the Shannon River, which served as both a route by which King Brian's naval forces could attack the shores of either province and as a barrier to the two rulers providing mutual support for each other. High-King Mael Sechlainn came up with an ingenious solution; two bridges would be erected across the Shannon. These bridges would serve as both obstacles preventing King Brian's fleet from traveling up the Shannon and as a means by which the armies of the Provinces of Meath and Connacht could cross over into each others kingdoms.

The Annals state that, in the year 1002, High-King Mael Sechlainn surrendered his title to King Brian Boru, although they do not say anything about how or why this came about. The Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh provides a story in which King Brian challenges High-King Mael Sechlainn to a battle at the Hill of Tara in the Province of Meath, but the High-King requests a month long truce so that he can mobilise his forces, which King Brian chivalrously grants him. But High-King Mael Sechlainn fails to rally the regional rulers who are nominally his subordinates by the time the deadline arrives, and he is forced to surrender his title to King Brian. This explanation is hardly credible, given King Brian's style of engaging in war; if he had found his opponent at a disadvantage he would certainly have taken full advantage of it rather than allowing his enemy the time to even the odds. Conversely, it is hard to believe, given the length and intensity of the struggle between High-King Mael Sechlainn and King Brian, that the High-King would surrender his title without a fight.

Where that fight may have occurred and what the particular circumstances were surrounding it we may never know. What is certain is that in 1002 Brian Boru became the new High-King of Ireland.

Unlike those who had previously held the title, Brian intended to be the High-King in more than name only. To accomplish this he needed to impose his will upon the regional rulers within the only Province that did not already recognise his authority, Ulster. The Province of Ulster presented a formidable challenge; because of its geography, there were three main routes by which an invading army could enter the Province, and all three favored the defenders. High-King Brian first had to find a means of getting through or around these defensive 'choke points', and then he had to subdue the fiercely independent regional Kings of Ulster. It took High-King Brian ten years of campaigning to achieve his goal which, considering he could and did call on all of the military forces of the rest of Ireland, indicates how formidable the Kings of Ulster were. Once again, it was his coordinated use of forces on land and at sea that allowed High-King Brian to triumph; while the rulers of Ulster could bring the advance of High-King Brian's army to a halt, they could not prevent his fleet from attacking the shores of their kingdoms. But gaining entry to the Province of Ulster brought him only halfway to his goal. High-King Brian systematically defeated each of the regional rulers who defied him, forcing them to recognise him as their overlord.

It was during this process that High-King Brian also pursued an alternate means of consolidating his control, not merely over the Province of Ulster, but over Ireland as a whole. In contrast to its structure elsewhere, the Christian Church in Ireland was centered, not around the bishops of diocese and archbishops of archdiocese, but rather around monasteries headed by powerful abbots who were members of the royal dynasties of the lands in which their monasteries resided. Among the most important monasteries was Armagh, located in the Province of Ulster. It is recorded in the 'Book of Armagh' that, in the year 1005, High-King Brian donated twenty-two ounces of gold to the monastery and declared that Armagh was the religious capital of Ireland to which all other monasteries should send the funds that they collect. This was a clever move, for the supremacy of the monastery of Armagh would only last so long as Brian remained the High-King. Therefore, it was in the interest of Armagh to support High-King Brian with all their wealth and power. It is also interesting that Brian is not referred to in the passage from the 'Book of Armagh' as the 'Ard Ri', that is, High-King, but rather he is declared to be the "Emperor of the Irish".

Though it is only speculation, it has been suggested that together, both High-King Brian and the Church in Ireland were seeking to establish a new form of kingship in Ireland, one that was modelled after the Kings of England and France where there were no lesser ranks of regional Kings, simply one King who had (or sought to have) power over all. In any case, whether as High-King or Emperor, by 1011 all of the regional rulers in Ireland acknowledged Brian Boru's authority. Unfortunately, no sooner had this been achieved than it was lost again.

King Mael Mordha of Leinster had only accepted High-King Brian's authority grudgingly and in 1012 rose in rebellion. The Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh relates a story in which one of Brian's sons insults King Mael Mordha, which leads him to declare his independence from High-King Brian's authority. Whatever the actual reason was, King Mael Mordha sought allies with which to defy the High-King. He found one in a regional ruler in Ulster who had only recently submitted to High-King Brian. Together they attacked the Province of Meath, where the former High-King, Mael Sechlainn sought Brian's help to defend his Kingdom. In 1013 High-King Brian led a force from his own Province of Munster and from southern Connacht into Leinster; a detachment under his son, Murchadh, ravaged the southern half of the Province of Leinster for three months. The force under Murchadh and High-King Brian were reunited on 9 September outside the walls of Dublin. The city was blockaded, but it was the High-King's army that ran out of supplies first, so that Brian was forced to abandon the siege and return to Munster around the time of Christmas.

King Mael Mordha may have hoped that by defying High-King Brian, he could enlist the aid of all of the other regional rulers Brian had forced to submit to him. If so, he must have been sorely disappointed; while the entire Province of Ulster and most of the Province of Connacht failed to provide the High-King with troops, they did not, with the exception of a single ruler in Ulster, provide support for King Mael Mordha either. His inability to obtain troops from any rulers in Ireland, along with his awareness that he would need them when the High-King returned in 1014, may explain why King Mael Mordha sought to obtain troops from rulers outside of Ireland. He instructed his subordinate and cousin, Sitric, the ruler of Dublin, to travel overseas to enlist aid.

Sitric sailed to the Orkney Islands, and on his return stopped at the Isle of Man. These islands had been seized by the Vikings long before and the Hiberno-Norse had close ties with the Orkneys and Manx. There was even a precedent for employing Norsemen from the Isles; they had been used by Sitric's father, Olaf Cuaran, in 980, and by Sitric himself in 990. Their incentive was loot, not land. Contrary to the assertions made in the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh, this was not an attempt by the Vikings to reconquer Ireland. All of the Norsemen, both the Hiberno-Norse of Dublin and the Norsemen from the Isles, were in the service of Mael Mordha, the King of Leinster. It should also be remembered that the High-King had 'Vikings' in his army as well; mainly the Hiberno-Norse of Limerick (and probably those of Waterford, Wexford, and Cork as well), but also, according to some sources, a rival gang of Norse mercenaries from the Isle of Man.

Essentially this could be characterised as an Irish civil war in which foreigners participated as minor players.

Along with whatever troops he obtained from abroad, the forces that High-King Brian mustered included the troops of his home Province of Munster, those of Southern Connacht, and the men of the Province of Meath, the latter commanded by his old rival, King Mael Sechlainn. He may have outnumbered King Mael Mordha's army, since Brian felt secure enough to dispatch a mounted detachment under the command of his youngest son, Donnchad, to raid southern Leinster, presumably hoping to force King Mael Mordha to release his contingents from there to return to defend their homes. Unfortunately for the High-King, if he had had a superiority in numbers it was soon lost. A disagreement with the King of Meath resulted in Mael Sechlainn withdrawing his support (Brian sent a messenger to find Donnchad and ask him to return with his detachment, but the call for help came too late). To compound his problems, the Norse contingents, led by Earl Sigard of the Orkneys and Brodar of the Isle of Man, arrived on Palm Sunday, the 18 April. The battle would occur five days later, on Good Friday.

The fighting took place just north of the city of Dublin, at Clontarf (now a prosperous suburb). It may well be that the two sides were evenly matched, as all of the accounts state that the Battle of Clontarf lasted all day and, though this may be an exaggeration, it does suggest that it was a long, drawn out fight.

Brian was married four times:

• First to Mór. She was the mother of Murchad, who was slain with Brian at Clontarf.
• Secondly to Echrad. She was mother of his successor Tadc.
• Thirdly to Gormflaith. She is the best known of his wives. She was the daughter of Murchad MacFinn, King of Leinster and also widow of Olaf Cuaran, the Viking king of Dublin and York. She was the mother of Donnchad, who succeeded Brian as King of Munster.
• Fourthly to Dub Choblaig. She was daughter of the King of Connacht.

The family descended from him (the O'Briens) subsequently ranked as one of the chief dynastic families of the country (see Chiefs of the Name).

The term the Brian Boru is also used to refer to the Brian Boru harp, the national symbol of the Republic of Ireland.

• Annals of Tigernach
• Annals of Ulster
• Cogadh Gaedhel re Gallaibh

• Irish kings
• High King of Ireland
• List of High Kings of Ireland
• History of Ireland
• Early Medieval Ireland 800-1166