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''Samadera indica'' is an [[evergreen]] tree or shrub,<ref name=Sasidharan>{{cite book |last1=Sasidharan |first1=N. |editor1-last=Lakshminarasimhan |editor1-first=P. |editor2-last=Prasanna |editor2-first=P. V. |title=Flora of Maharastra State Dicotyledones Vol. I, (Ranunculaceae to Rhizophoraceae) (State Flora Series) |date=2000 |publisher=Sanctum Books |location=New Delhi |chapter=Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala Part 6: Flowering Plants,}}</ref><ref name="flowersofindia">{{cite web |title=Niepa Bark Tree |url=https://flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Niepa%20Bark%20Tree.html |website=Flowers of India |access-date=9 November 2023}}</ref><ref name=Quattrocchi>Umberto Quattrocchi. CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC Press, p.45:2012.</ref> that can grow up to {{cvt|10|m|1}} tall,<ref name=Sasidharan/><ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name=Stannard2000>{{cite book |last1=Stannard |first1=Brian |title=Flora of Tropical East Africa |date=2000 |page=1}}</ref><!-- also <ref name="Manunggal"/><ref name=Quattrocchi/><ref name=Warrier/> --> or {{cvt|20|m|1}} tall.<ref name="Prosea2001">{{cite book |last1=Ong |first1=H.C. |editor1-last=van Valkenburg |editor1-first=J.L.C.H. |editor2-last=Bunyapraphatsara |editor2-first=N. |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12 (2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. |date=2001 |publisher=PROSEA Foundation |location=Bogor, Indonesia. |chapter=''Quassia indica'' (Gaertner) Noot.}}</ref><ref name="Nparks">{{cite web |title=NParks {{!}} ''Samadera indica'' |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/7/2/7206 |website=www.nparks.gov.sg |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref>
''Samadera indica'' is an [[evergreen]] tree or shrub,<ref name=Sasidharan>{{cite book |last1=Sasidharan |first1=N. |editor1-last=Lakshminarasimhan |editor1-first=P. |editor2-last=Prasanna |editor2-first=P. V. |title=Flora of Maharastra State Dicotyledones Vol. I, (Ranunculaceae to Rhizophoraceae) (State Flora Series) |date=2000 |publisher=Sanctum Books |location=New Delhi |chapter=Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala Part 6: Flowering Plants,}}</ref><ref name="flowersofindia">{{cite web |title=Niepa Bark Tree |url=https://flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Niepa%20Bark%20Tree.html |website=Flowers of India |access-date=9 November 2023}}</ref><ref name=Quattrocchi>Umberto Quattrocchi. CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC Press, p.45:2012.</ref> that can grow up to {{cvt|10|m|1}} tall,<ref name=Sasidharan/><ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name=Stannard2000>{{cite book |last1=Stannard |first1=Brian |title=Flora of Tropical East Africa |date=2000 |page=1}}</ref><!-- also <ref name="Manunggal"/><ref name=Quattrocchi/><ref name=Warrier/> --> or {{cvt|20|m|1}} tall.<ref name="Prosea2001">{{cite book |last1=Ong |first1=H.C. |editor1-last=van Valkenburg |editor1-first=J.L.C.H. |editor2-last=Bunyapraphatsara |editor2-first=N. |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12 (2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. |date=2001 |publisher=PROSEA Foundation |location=Bogor, Indonesia. |chapter=''Quassia indica'' (Gaertner) Noot.}}</ref><ref name="Nparks">{{cite web |title=NParks {{!}} ''Samadera indica'' |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/7/2/7206 |website=www.nparks.gov.sg |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref>


It has pale yellow [[Bark (botany)|bark]],<ref name=Warrier/><ref name="Manunggal"/><ref name=Quattrocchi/><!-- also <ref name=Wiart2006/> --> which is transversely cracked.<ref name=Quattrocchi/><ref name=Neginhal/> There is no [[heartwood]], and the bark has small pores, the [[medullary rays]] are very fine, uniform and closely packed.<ref name=Gamble>[[James Sykes Gamble]] {{google books|M24IAAAAQAAJ|A Manual of Indian Timbers: An Account of the Growth, Distribution and Uses of the Trees and Shrubs of India and Ceylon with Description of Their Wood-Structure. (1881; 1902)|page=64}}</ref> It has stout branches,<ref name=Warrier/><ref name=Neginhal/> which are [[Glabrousness|glabrous]] (hairless).<ref name=Stannard2000/> It is {{cvt|3|–|10|mm|1}}, with elliptic-oblong, glabrous, shining leaves which are reticulately nerved.<ref name="Sasidharan" /> They are about 20 centimeters wide.<ref name="Manunggal" /> The [[Petiole (botany)|petioles]] are 1-2 cm long and stout.<ref name="Prosea2001" /><ref name="flowersofindia" /> Leaves simple, elliptic, ovate or obovate, 5–25 cm long, 2–8.5 cm wide, rounded to acuminate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, glabrous, glandular beneath, densely reticulate-veined; petiole 7–15(–30) mm, often curved.<ref name="Stannard2000" />
It has pale yellow [[Bark (botany)|bark]],<ref name=Warrier/><ref name="Manunggal"/><ref name=Quattrocchi/><!-- also <ref name=Wiart2006/> --> which is
transversely cracked.<ref name=Quattrocchi/><ref name=Neginhal/>
There is no [[heartwood]], and the bark has small pores, the [[medullary rays]] are very fine, uniform and closely packed.<ref name=Gamble>[[James Sykes Gamble]] {{google books|M24IAAAAQAAJ|A Manual of Indian Timbers: An Account of the Growth, Distribution and Uses of the Trees and Shrubs of India and Ceylon with Description of Their Wood-Structure. (1881; 1902)|page=64}}</ref> It has stout branches,<ref name=Warrier/><ref name=Neginhal/> which are [[Glabrousness|glabrous]] (hairless).<ref name=Stannard2000/>


The flowers are usually 20 or more in umbelliform glabrous or puberulous inflorescences. The [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]] are 7-30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicels]] 1 to 3 cm, jointed at base; bracts minute. Petals are 4 in number and 0.5 cm, and are white, pale yellow, or purplish.<ref name="Sasidharan" /> The flowers bisexual, the calyx 4-lobed<ref name="Prosea2001" /> They flower all year.<ref name="flowersofindia" />


The [[Drupe|drupes]] appear 1-4 together, and are flat, smooth, glandular, and reticulate.<ref name="Sasidharan" /><ref name="flowersofindia" /> ''Samadera indica'' has fruit of 1–4 carpels, each a woody drupe, ellipsoid with an unilateral thin wing in the upper part. They are 4–6 cm long, 2.5–3.7 cm wide, and 1.3–1.9 cm thick, with 1 large, brown seed.<ref name="Stannard2000" /><ref name="Manunggal" /><ref name="Warrier" /> Fruits are grouped in whorls of 1-4 carpels, and are green blotched red, ovoid, and flattened.<ref name="Wiart2006" />
{{cvt|3|–|10|mm|1}}


⚫
thin testa, absent endosperm, plano-convex cotyledons, measuring up to 3.5 cm 2.5 cm large.<ref name=Quattrocchi/>
Leaves elliptic-oblong, subacute-rounded at base, acute to acuminate at apex, coriaceous, glabrous, shining, reticulately nerved.<ref name=Sasidharan/> Petioles 1-2 cm long, stout.
leaves simple, elliptical-oblong to lanceolate, 12—30 cm x 4—12 cm, veins prominent, with pitted glands on both surfaces, petiole 1—2.5 cm long;<ref name="Prosea2001"/>
Leaves are elliptic-oblong, somewhat pointed-rounded at base, pointed to tapering at tip, leathery, hairless, shining, netveined. Leaf-stalks are 1-2 cm long, stout.<ref name="flowersofindia"/>
Leaves simple, elliptic, ovate or obovate, 5–25 cm long, 2–8.5 cm wide, rounded to acuminate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, glabrous, glandular beneath, densely reticulate-veined; petiole 7–15(–30) mm, often curved.<ref name=Stannard2000/>
Leaves are simple, elliptic-oblong, about 20 centimeters wide.<ref name="Manunggal"/>
Foliage The alternate leaves are simple, elliptical-oblong to lanceolate, measuring to 30 cm long and 12 cm wide, Pitted glands can be found on the upper surface.<ref name="Nparks"/>
Leaves: Leaves are elliptic-oblong, somewhat pointed-rounded at base, pointed to tapering at tip, leathery, hairless, shining, net veined, acute to acuminate at apex, coriaceous, glabrous, shining, reticulately nerved. Petioles1-2 cm long,stout.<ref name=Quattrocchi/>
large leaves, up to 25cm long and 9cm broad, elliptic-lanceolate, shiny, <ref name=Warrier/>
laurel green, glossy above, pale lime green below,<ref name=Wiart2006/>
petiole 2.2cm
10 pairs of secondary nerves on leaf.<ref name=Wiart2006/>
leaves alternate, simple, 25 x 7.5-10 cm elliptic-lanceolate,<ref name=Neginhal/>


Flowers 20 or more in umbelliform glabrous or puberulous inflorescences. Peduncles 7-30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; Pedicels 1-1.5 cm long, to 3 cm in fruit, jointed at base; bracts minute. Calyx 2-3 cm long, 4-lobed; lobes semiorbicular, thick, puberulous outside. Petals 4, free, oblong-oblanceolate, obtuse, 1-2 x ca 0.5 cm, dorsally pubescent, white, pale yellow or purplish. Stamens 8, pubescent. Anthers oblong-lanceolate, 2-3 mm long; filaments puberulous. Ovary ca 2 mm across, puberulous; styles to 2 cm long, glabrous.<ref name=Sasidharan/>
inflorescence a terminal or axillary pseudo-umbel, 1—30 cm long; flowers bisexual, calyx 4-lobed, petals free, accrescent, up to 3 cm x 1 cm, creamy green to violet; fruit an aggregate of the 4 carpels, laterally compressed, with a straight inner and semicircular outer margin, 4—9 cm x 2.5—5 cm; seed with thin testa, endosperm absent, cotyledons planoconvex, up to 3.5 cm x 2.5 cm.<ref name="Prosea2001"/>
Flowering: All year.<ref name="flowersofindia"/>
Flowers are 20 or more in umbel-like hairless or finely velvet-hairy clusters. Flower-cluster-stalks are 7-30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; Flower-stalks are 1-1.5 cm long, to 3 cm in fruit, jointed at base; bracts minute. Calyx 2-3 cm long, 4-lobed; sepals semiround, thick, finely velvet-hairy outside. Petals are 4, free, oblong-inverted-lanceshaped, blunt, 1-2 x about 0.5 cm, dorsally velvet-hairy, white, pale yellow or purplish. Stamens are 8, velvet-hairy. Anthers oblong-lanceshaped, 2-3 mm long; filaments finely velvet-hairy. Ovary is about 2 mm across, finely velvet-hairy; styles to 2 cm long, hairless.<ref name="flowersofindia"/>
Inflorescence axillary, pendulous, with a thin peduncle 1–30 cm long and a terminal umbel of 4–13 flowers; bracteoles ± 1 mm; pedicel 10–30 mm. Flowers white, bisexual. Calyx of 4 obtuse sepals 6 mm long, 2 mm wide, with a concave gland in the centre. Petals 4, contorted or imbricate in bud, 10–25 mm long, 9 mm wide, obtuse, pubescent outside. Disc large. Stamens 8, to 16 mm long. Style with terminal, inconspicuous stigma.<ref name=Stannard2000/>
Flowers are numerous, bisexual, 4-parted, pinkish yellow, on dense and pedunculated short-stalked umbels.<ref name="Manunggal"/>
Flowers Individual flower is small, creamy-green to violet colored.<ref name="Nparks"/>
Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary pseudo-umbel Flowers: Flowers are 20 or more in umbel-like hairless or finely velvet-hairy clusters. Bisexual, Flower-cluster-stalks are 7-30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; Flower-stalks are 1-1.5 cm long <ref name=Quattrocchi/>
flowers pinkish yellow in few or many flowered axillary umbels, peduncles longer than the leaves, pedicels are red,<ref name=Warrier/>
flower is 12cm, umbelliform,
pedicel is 1.5cm long, <ref name=Wiart2006/>
flowers bisexual, dense umbels, peduncles long, petals 3-5, stamens 6-10, large disc, ob-conic,<ref name=Neginhal/>

Drupes 1-4 together, flat, smooth, glandular and reticulate.<ref name=Sasidharan/>
Fruits are 1-4 together, flat, smooth, glandular and netveined.<ref name="flowersofindia"/>
Fruit of 1–4 carpels, each a woody drupe, ellipsoid with an unilateral thin wing in the upper part, 4–5 cm long, laterally compressed, 2.5–3.7 cm wide and 1.3–1.9 cm thick, 1-seeded.<ref name=Stannard2000/>
Fruit is oval, about 6 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters wide consisting of one carpet, flattened and keeled.<ref name="Manunggal"/>
Fruits Fruits are flattened, 4-9 cm long and 2.5-5 cm wide. The inner margin is straight, while the outer margin is semicircular and thinner than the inner one.<ref name="Nparks"/>
Fruit: 1-4 together, flat, smooth, glandular and net veined, to 3 cm in fruit, jointed at base; bracts minute.<ref name=Quattrocchi/>
⚫
Seeds: thin testa, absent endosperm, plano-convex cotyledons, measuring up to 3.5 cm x 2.5 cm, large. <ref name=Quattrocchi/>
large fruits, flat, pear shaped, much compressed, smooth, containing a large brown curved seed.<ref name=Warrier/>
fruits are grouped in whorls of 1-4 carpels, green blotched red, ovoid and flattened, 6.3cm x 3.2cm
white seeds, <ref name=Wiart2006/>
fruit red smooth<ref name=Neginhal/>
fruit large 3.8* 2.5cm, oval or pear shaped, drupe with narrow wing <ref name=Neginhal/>


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
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Depending on the country and language, it is also known as various names such as; in [[Hindi]] as लोखंडी and ''Lokhandi'',<ref name=Deepa2015/> in [[Kannada]] as ನೀಪಾ and ''Nipa'', ''samdera'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/> or ''Kaduhonge'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/><ref name=Deepa2015/> in [[Malayalam]] as ''Karinghota'',<ref>Heber Drury {{google books|A24IAAAAQAAJ|The Useful Plants of India: With Notices of Their Chief Value in Commerce ... (1873)|page=501}}</ref> കര്ംഗൊടാ ''Karinjotta'', ''Karingota'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/> ''Karingotta'',<ref name=Neginhal>S.G. Neginhal IFS {{google books|oHHWDwAAQBAJ|Forest Trees of South India (2020)|page=52}}</ref> or ''Njotta''.<ref name="Prosea2001"/> In [[Malaysian Malay|Malaysian]] it is ''Manuggal'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/> in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] as लोखंडी and ''Lokhandi'', in [[Sanskrit]] as गुच्छकरंजः and ''Gucchakaranjah'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name=Deepa2015/> or ''Lokhandi''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]], known as Samadera.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], known as ''Simaruba de Madagascar''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''karincottai'', நீபம் or ''Nibam'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/> and நீபா ''Nipa''.<ref name="flowersofindia"/> In [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''Lokanti''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/>
Depending on the country and language, it is also known as various names such as; in [[Hindi]] as लोखंडी and ''Lokhandi'',<ref name=Deepa2015/> in [[Kannada]] as ನೀಪಾ and ''Nipa'', ''samdera'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/> or ''Kaduhonge'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/><ref name=Deepa2015/> in [[Malayalam]] as ''Karinghota'',<ref>Heber Drury {{google books|A24IAAAAQAAJ|The Useful Plants of India: With Notices of Their Chief Value in Commerce ... (1873)|page=501}}</ref> കര്ംഗൊടാ ''Karinjotta'', ''Karingota'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/> ''Karingotta'',<ref name=Neginhal>S.G. Neginhal IFS {{google books|oHHWDwAAQBAJ|Forest Trees of South India (2020)|page=52}}</ref> or ''Njotta''.<ref name="Prosea2001"/> In [[Malaysian Malay|Malaysian]] it is ''Manuggal'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/> in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] as लोखंडी and ''Lokhandi'', in [[Sanskrit]] as गुच्छकरंजः and ''Gucchakaranjah'',<ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name=Deepa2015/> or ''Lokhandi''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]], known as Samadera.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], known as ''Simaruba de Madagascar''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/> In [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''karincottai'', நீபம் or ''Nibam'',<ref name=asiamedicinal/> and நீபா ''Nipa''.<ref name="flowersofindia"/> In [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''Lokanti''.<ref name=asiamedicinal/>


While on the Micronesian islands (such as Caroline Island), it is known as ''eskeam'' or ''etkeam''.<ref>Marjorie C. Falanruw, Thomas G. Cole, Jean E Maka and Craig D. Whitesell {{google books|kjYIBHc87u4C|Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands (1990)|page=14}}</ref> The wood is known as ''kathai'' in Burma.<ref name=Gamble/>
the Micronesian islands (such as Caroline Island), it is known as ''eskeam'' or ''etkeam''.<ref>Marjorie C. Falanruw, Thomas G. Cole, Jean E Maka and Craig D. Whitesell {{google books|kjYIBHc87u4C|Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands (1990)|page=14}}</ref> The wood is known as ''kathai'' in Burma.<ref name=Gamble/>


In Indonesia as ''gateph pait'' (Bangka), ''sahangi'' (Minahasa) ''lani'' (Ambon). In Malaysia as ''kayu pahit'' (Peninsular), ''kelapahit'' (Murut, Sabah), ''manuggal'' (Iban, Sarawak). In Papua New Guinea as ''tosi'' (Delena, Central Province). In the Philippines, it is known as ''Manunggal'',<ref name="Manunggal">{{cite web |title=Manunggal / Quassia indica/ Bitter wood : Philippine Medicinal Herbs / Philippine Alternative Medicine |url=http://www.stuartxchange.org/Manunggal.html |website=www.stuartxchange.org |access-date=9 November 2023}}</ref> ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], Bikol, Bisaya).<ref name="Prosea2001"/>
In Indonesia as ''gateph pait'' (Bangka), ''sahangi'' (Minahasa) ''lani'' (Ambon). In Malaysia as ''kayu pahit'' (Peninsular), ''kelapahit'' (Murut, Sabah), ''manuggal'' (Iban, Sarawak). In Papua New Guinea as ''tosi'' (Delena, Central Province). In the Philippines, it is known as ''Manunggal'',<ref name="Manunggal">{{cite web |title=Manunggal / Quassia indica/ Bitter wood : Philippine Medicinal Herbs / Philippine Alternative Medicine |url=http://www.stuartxchange.org/Manunggal.html |website=www.stuartxchange.org |access-date=9 November 2023}}</ref> ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], Bikol, Bisaya).<ref name="Prosea2001"/>
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The [[specific name (botany)|specific epithet]] "indica" refers to India, the country where this species was first observed.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaN-hLL-3qEC |first=Umberto |last=Quattrocchi |title=CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names |volume=III: M-Q |year=2000 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-2677-6 |page=1730}}</ref>
The [[specific name (botany)|specific epithet]] "indica" refers to India, the country where this species was first observed.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaN-hLL-3qEC |first=Umberto |last=Quattrocchi |title=CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names |volume=III: M-Q |year=2000 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-2677-6 |page=1730}}</ref>


The species was later placed in the section ''Samadera'' of the Simaroubaceae by [[Hans Peter Nooteboom]] (1934–2022) in 1962 (published in 1963), as ''Quassia indica'', along with ''[[Quassia harmandiana]]''. Nooteboom had taken a very broad view of the genus ''[[Quassia]]'' {{au|L.}} and included therein various genera including, ''[[Hannoa]]'' {{au|Planch.}}, ''[[Odyendyea]]'' {{au|(Pierre) Engl.}}, ''[[Pierreodendron]]'' {{au|Engl.}}, ''[[Samadera]]'' {{au|Gaertn.}}, ''[[Simaba]]'' {{au|Aubl.}} and ''[[Simarouba]]'' {{au|Aubl.}} .<ref name="noteboom">{{cite journal |last1=Noteboom |first1=Hans Peter |title=Generic delimitation in Simaroubaceae tribus Simaroubeae and a conspectus of the genus ''Quassia'' L. |journal=[[Blumea]] |date=1962 |volume=XI |issue=2 |pages=509–28 |url=https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/524782/BLUM1962011002007.pdf |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=''Quassia indica'' {{!}} International Plant Names Index |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/814026-1 |website=www.ipni.org |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref>
The species was later placed in the section ''Samadera'' of the Simaroubaceae by [[Hans Peter Nooteboom]] (1934–2022) in 1962 (published in 1963), as ''Quassia indica'', along with ''[[Quassia harmandiana]]''. Nooteboom had taken a very broad view of the genus ''[[Quassia]]'' {{au|L.}} and included therein various genera including, ''[[Hannoa]]'' {{au|Planch.}}, ''[[Odyendyea]]'' {{au|(Pierre) Engl.}}, ''[[Pierreodendron]]'' {{au|Engl.}}, ''[[Samadera]]'' {{au|Gaertn.}}, ''[[Simaba]]'' {{au|Aubl.}} and ''[[Simarouba]]'' {{au|Aubl.}}.<ref name="noteboom">{{cite journal |last1=Noteboom |first1=Hans Peter |title=Generic delimitation in Simaroubaceae tribus Simaroubeae and a conspectus of the genus ''Quassia'' L. |journal=[[Blumea]] |date=1962 |volume=XI |issue=2 |pages=509–28 |url=https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/524782/BLUM1962011002007.pdf |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=''Quassia indica'' {{!}} International Plant Names Index |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/814026-1 |website=www.ipni.org |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref>


In 2007, [[DNA]] sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses was carried out on members of the Simaroubaceae family. It found that genus ''Samadera'' was a sister to Clade V and that genus ''Quassia'' was also a sister to Clade V but they had separate lineages. This suggested the splitting up of genera ''Quassia'' again, with all Nooteboom's synonyms listed above being resurrected as independent genera. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=J.W. |last2=Fernando |first2=E.S. |last3=Soltis |first3=P.S. |last4=Soltis |first4=D.E. |title=Molecular phylogeny of the Tree-of-Heaven family (Simaroubaceae) based on chloroplast and nuclear markers |journal=Int. J. Plant Sci. |date=2007 |volume=168 |pages=1325-1339}}</ref>
In 2007, [[DNA]] sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses was carried out on members of the Simaroubaceae family. It found that genus ''Samadera'' was a sister to Clade V and that genus ''Quassia'' was also a sister to Clade V but they had separate lineages. This suggested the splitting up of genera ''Quassia'' again, with all Nooteboom's synonyms listed above being resurrected as independent genera. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=J.W. |last2=Fernando |first2=E.S. |last3=Soltis |first3=P.S. |last4=Soltis |first4=D.E. |title=Molecular phylogeny of the Tree-of-Heaven family (Simaroubaceae) based on chloroplast and nuclear markers |journal=Int. J. Plant Sci. |date=2007 |volume=168 |pages=1325-1339}}</ref>


It was later returned to genus ''Samadera'' as ''Samadera indica'' in 2008.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=R.P. |last2=Dilwakar |first2=P.G. |title=An integrated check-list flora of Andaman and Nicobar islands, India. |journal=Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany |date=2008 |volume=32 |pages=403-500.}}</ref> But it is still known as ''Quassia indica'' in many places.
It was later returned to genus ''Samadera'' as ''Samadera indica'' in 2008<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=R.P. |last2=Dilwakar |first2=P.G. |title=An integrated check-list flora of Andaman and Nicobar islands, India. |journal=Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany |date=2008 |volume=32 |pages=403-500.}}</ref> it is still known as ''Quassia indica'' in many places.

Due to the woody and floating nature of the ''Samadera indica'' fruit explains how the species was able to be widespread across its distribution range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Joshua W. |last2=Soltis |first2=Pamela S. |last3=Soltis |first3=Douglas E. |title=Recent Long-Distance Dispersal Overshadows Ancient Biogeographical Patterns in a Pantropical Angiosperm Family (Simaroubaceae, Sapindales) |journal=Systematic Biology |date=August 2009 |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=395–410 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp041}}</ref>


==Distribution==
==Distribution==
''Samadera indica'' is [[Native species|native]] to the countries (and regions) of; Africa (within [[Tanzania]], [[Pemba Island]], [[Comoros]] and [[Madagascar]]), tropical Asia, (within India,<ref name="flowersofindia"/> Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,<ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name="floraofsrilanka"/>), Indo-China (within [[Andaman Islands]], Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,<ref name="flowersofindia"/> and Vietnam), Indonesia,<ref name="Kitagawa1996"/> [[Malesia]] (within Borneo, Malaya, Philippines,<ref name="Manunggal"/> [[Sulawesi]] and Sumatra), [[Papuasia]] (within [[Bismarck Archipelago]], New Guinea, Solomon Islands) and the Pacific islands ([[Caroline Islands]] and [[Vanuatu]]).<ref name="POWO"/>
''Samadera indica'' is [[Native species|native]] to the countries (and regions) of Africa (within [[Tanzania]], [[Pemba Island]], [[Comoros]] and [[Madagascar]]), tropical Asia, (within India,<ref name="flowersofindia"/> Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,<ref name="flowersofindia"/><ref name="floraofsrilanka"/>), Indo-China (within [[Andaman Islands]], Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,<ref name="flowersofindia"/> and Vietnam), Indonesia,<ref name="Kitagawa1996"/> [[Malesia]] (within Borneo, Malaya, Philippines,<ref name="Manunggal"/> [[Sulawesi]] and Sumatra), [[Papuasia]] (within [[Bismarck Archipelago]], New Guinea, Solomon Islands) and the Pacific islands ([[Caroline Islands]] and [[Vanuatu]]).<ref name="POWO"/>
It is not found on [[Java]] and the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]].<ref name=Asianplant/> It is also listed as native to the island of [[Singapore]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=I.M. |title=Flora of Singapore precursors, 22: typifying Tongkat Ali and other notes on the Simaroubaceae in Singapore. |journal=Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. |date=2021 |volume=73 |pages=9-16. |doi=10.26492/gbs73(1).2021-02}}</ref>
It is not found on [[Java]] and the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]].<ref name=Asianplant/> It is also listed as native to the island of [[Singapore]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=I.M. |title=Flora of Singapore precursors, 22: typifying Tongkat Ali and other notes on the Simaroubaceae in Singapore. |journal=Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. |date=2021 |volume=73 |pages=9-16. |doi=10.26492/gbs73(1).2021-02}}</ref>
Line 140: Line 99:


==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==
It can be cultivated for use in parks or gardens, due to its attractive foliage, fruits and general form.
It can be cultivated for use in parks or gardens, due to its attractive foliage, fruits and general form.
It can grow in well-drained soils or can tolerate moist soils. In positions in full sun and needs watering as much as generally any other shrub.
It can be [[Plant propagation|propagated]] by seed.<ref name="Nparks"/>


==Uses==
==Uses==
Line 187: Line 144:
===Insecticide uses===
===Insecticide uses===
It is also used to produce [[insecticides]].<ref name=Chopra1986/>
It is also used to produce [[insecticides]].<ref name=Chopra1986/>
An [[infusion]] of the leaves,<ref name="Prosea2001"/><ref name=Perry1980>{{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=L.M. |title=Medicinal Plants of East and South-East Asia : Attributed Properties and Uses. |date=1980 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London.}}</ref> or a [[decoction]] of the leaves is used to kill [[termites]] (or white ants).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uphof |first1=J.C.Th. |title=Dictionary of Economic Plants |date=1959 |publisher=Weinheim}}</ref><ref>Anand Prakash, Jagadiswari Rao {{google books|q38W9fSoHTwC|Botanical Pesticides in Agriculture (1996)|page=254}}</ref> Especially in the Congo and Madagascar.<ref name="Wright2005">{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=C.W. |title=Traditional antimalarial and development of novel antimalarial drugs. |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology. |date=2005 |volume=23 |pages=85-90.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Usher |first1=M.B. |last2=Barnacle |first2=J.E. |title=Termites and telegraph poles in Northern Ghana. |journal=Ghana J. Sci. |date=1974 |volume=14 |pages=39–18.}}</ref>
An [[infusion]] of the leaves,<ref name="Prosea2001"/><ref name=Perry1980>{{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=L.M. |title=Medicinal Plants of East and South-East Asia : Attributed Properties and Uses. |date=1980 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London.}}</ref> or a [[decoction]] of the leaves is used to kill [[termites]] (or white ants).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uphof |first1=J.C.Th. |title=Dictionary of Economic Plants |date=1959 |publisher=Weinheim}}</ref><ref>Anand Prakash, Jagadiswari Rao {{google books|q38W9fSoHTwC|Botanical Pesticides in Agriculture (1996)|page=254}}</ref> Especially in the Congo and Madagascar.<ref name="Wright2005">{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=C.W. |title=Traditional antimalarial and development of novel antimalarial drugs. |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology. |date=2005 |volume=23 |pages=85-90.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Usher |first1=M.B. |last2=Barnacle |first2=J.E. |title=Termites and telegraph poles in Northern Ghana. |journal=Ghana J. Sci. |date=1974 |volume=14 |pages=39–18.}}</ref>
In 2023, the toxic effect of the plant against termites was evaluated alongside four other different plants such as ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', ''[[Allium sativum]]'', ''[[Zingiber officinale]]'' and ''[[Justicia adhatoda]]''. It had a 74 percentage of mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Mekha |last2=Gayathri |first2=S. |last3=Athira |first3=K.P. |last4=Elias |first4=Roshini Susan |last5=Soumya |first5=S. |last6=Kurian |first6=P. |title=Efficacy of plant leaf extracts on termites under laboratory conditions |journal=Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies |date=2023 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=106-110 |doi=10.22271/j.ento.2023.v11.i1b.9131}}</ref>


Various extracts, including ''Samadera indica'' leaf extracts have shown to significantly decrease the reproduction ability of mosquitoes and also the hatchability of their eggs, in species such as ''[[Culex quinquefasciatus]]'', ''[[Anopheles stephensi]]'' and ''[[Aedes aegypti]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muthukrishnan |first1=J. |last2=Pushpalatha |first2=E. |title=Effects of plant extracts on fecundity and fertility of mosquitoes |journal=Journal of Applied Entomology |date=July 2008 |volume=125 |issue=1-2 |pages=31 - 35 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0418.2001.00503}}</ref>
Various extracts, including ''Samadera indica'' leaf extracts have shown to significantly decrease the reproduction ability of mosquitoes and also the hatchability of their eggs, in species such as ''[[Culex quinquefasciatus]]'', ''[[Anopheles stephensi]]'' and ''[[Aedes aegypti]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muthukrishnan |first1=J. |last2=Pushpalatha |first2=E. |title=Effects of plant extracts on fecundity and fertility of mosquitoes |journal=Journal of Applied Entomology |date=July 2008 |volume=125 |issue=1-2 |pages=31 - 35 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0418.2001.00503}}</ref>

Revision as of 00:10, 29 November 2023

Samadera indica
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Simaroubaceae
Genus: Samadera
Species:
S. indica
Binomial name
Samadera indica
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Locandi glandulifera (C.Presl) Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Locandi indica (Gaertn.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi lucida (Wall.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi madagascariensis (A.Juss.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi mekongensis Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 263 (1892)
    • Locandi merguensis Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Locandi pendula (Blanco) Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Manungala pendula Blanco in Fl. Filip.: 306 (1837)
    • Niota commersonii Pers. in Syn. Pl. 1: 416 (1805)
    • Niota lamarkiana Blume in Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 251 (1825), nom. superfl.
    • Niota lucida Wall. in Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2: t. 168 (1831)
    • Niota pendula Sm. in A.Rees, Cycl. 25: [s.p.] (1819), nom. superfl.
    • Niota pentapetala Poir. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck, Encycl. 4: 490 (1798)
    • Niota tetrapetala Poir. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck, Encycl. 4: 490 (1798)
    • Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot. in Blumea 11: 517 (1963)
    • Quassia indica var. 'lucida (Wall.) Blatt. in Kirtikar & Basu, Ind. Med. Pl. 1: 509 (1935)
    • Quassia indica var. papuava Lauterb. in Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 56: 342 (1920)
    • Samadera brevipetala Scheff. in Natuurk. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indië 32: 410 (1871)
    • Samadera glandulifera C.Presl in Symb. Bot. (Pragae) 2: 1 (1834)
    • Samadera indica var. brevipetala (Scheff.) Backer in Fl. Batavia: 258 (1907)
    • Samadera indica var. lucida (Wall.) Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 44: 136 (1876)
    • Samadera lucida (Wall.) Voigt in Hort. Suburb. Calcutt.: 182 (1845)
    • Samadera madagascariensis A.Juss. in Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat. 12: 516 (1825)
    • Samadera mekongensis (Pierre) Engl. in H.G.A.Engler & K.A.E.Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3(4): 210 (1896)
    • Samadera pentapetala (Poir.) G.Don in Gen. Hist. 1: 811 (1831)
    • Samadera tetrapetala (Poir.) G.Don in Gen. Hist. 1: 811 (1831)
    • Simaba indica (Gaertn.) Baill. in Hist. Pl. 4: 440 (1873)
    • Vitmannia elliptica Vahl in Symb. Bot. 3: 51 (1794)
    • Vitmannia lucida (Wall.) Steud. in Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 2: 779 (1841)

Samadera indica (syn. Quassia indica) also known as bitter wood and Niepa bark tree. It is a shrub or tree and grows primarily in wet tropical regions, from west Africa, through India, then down through Indonesia to Malesia.

It is used in folklore medicine in various Asian countries as well to treat various ailments such as malaria, fevers, rheumatism, bruises, skin conditions and others conditions. The leaves are used as insecticides against termites, and the wood is used for knife handles.

Description

Samadera indica is an evergreen tree or shrub,[2][3][4] that can grow up to 10 m (32.8 ft) tall,[2][3][5] or 20 m (65.6 ft) tall.[6][7]

It has pale yellow bark,[8][9][4] which is transversely cracked.[4][10] There is no heartwood, and the bark has small pores, the medullary rays are very fine, uniform and closely packed.[11] It has stout branches,[8][10] which are glabrous (hairless).[5] It is 3–10 mm (0.1–0.4 in), with elliptic-oblong, glabrous, shining leaves which are reticulately nerved.[2] They are about 20 centimeters wide.[9] The petioles are 1-2 cm long and stout.[6][3] Leaves simple, elliptic, ovate or obovate, 5–25 cm long, 2–8.5 cm wide, rounded to acuminate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, glabrous, glandular beneath, densely reticulate-veined; petiole 7–15(–30) mm, often curved.[5]

The flowers are usually 20 or more in umbelliform glabrous or puberulous inflorescences. The peduncles are 7-30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; pedicels 1 to 3 cm, jointed at base; bracts minute. Petals are 4 in number and 0.5 cm, and are white, pale yellow, or purplish.[2] The flowers bisexual, the calyx 4-lobed[6] They flower all year.[3]

The drupes appear 1-4 together, and are flat, smooth, glandular, and reticulate.[2][3] Samadera indica has fruit of 1–4 carpels, each a woody drupe, ellipsoid with an unilateral thin wing in the upper part. They are 4–6 cm long, 2.5–3.7 cm wide, and 1.3–1.9 cm thick, with 1 large, brown seed.[5][9][8] Fruits are grouped in whorls of 1-4 carpels, and are green blotched red, ovoid, and flattened.[12]

The seeds have thin testa, absent endosperm, and plano-convex cotyledons, measuring up to 3.5 cm by 2.5 cm large.[4]

Taxonomy

Vernacular names

It has several English common names such as; Niepa bark tree,[3][13] Bitter wood,[9] and Rangoon creeper.[6] Although Rangoon Creeper name is more used for the vine Combretum indicum.[14]

Depending on the country and language, it is also known as various names such as; in Hindi as लोखंडी and Lokhandi,[13] in Kannada as ನೀಪಾ and Nipa, samdera,[3] or Kaduhonge,[15][13] in Malayalam as Karinghota,[16] കര്ംഗൊടാ Karinjotta, Karingota,[3] Karingotta,[10] or Njotta.[6] In Malaysian it is Manuggal,[15] in Marathi as लोखंडी and Lokhandi, in Sanskrit as गुच्छकरंजः and Gucchakaranjah,[3][13] or Lokhandi.[15] In Sinhalese, known as Samadera.[15] In Spanish, known as Simaruba de Madagascar.[15] In Tamil as karincottai, நீபம் or Nibam,[15] and நீபா Nipa.[3] In Telugu as Lokanti.[15]

On the Micronesian islands (such as Caroline Island), it is known as eskeam or etkeam.[17] The wood is known as kathai in Burma.[11]

In Indonesia as gateph pait (Bangka), sahangi (Minahasa) lani (Ambon). In Malaysia as kayu pahit (Peninsular), kelapahit (Murut, Sabah), manuggal (Iban, Sarawak). In Papua New Guinea as tosi (Delena, Central Province). In the Philippines, it is known as Manunggal,[9] (Tagalog, Bikol, Bisaya).[6]

Publishing

Niepa Bark Tree

The botanic name of Samadera indica was first published and described by German Botanist Joseph Gaertner (1732–1791) in his seminal book De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum vol.2 on page 352 in 1791.[1][18]

The specific epithet "indica" refers to India, the country where this species was first observed.[19]

The species was later placed in the section Samadera of the Simaroubaceae by Hans Peter Nooteboom (1934–2022) in 1962 (published in 1963), as Quassia indica, along with Quassia harmandiana. Nooteboom had taken a very broad view of the genus Quassia L. and included therein various genera including, Hannoa Planch., Odyendyea (Pierre) Engl., Pierreodendron Engl., Samadera Gaertn., Simaba Aubl. and Simarouba Aubl..[20][21]

In 2007, DNA sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses was carried out on members of the Simaroubaceae family. It found that genus Samadera was a sister to Clade V and that genus Quassia was also a sister to Clade V but they had separate lineages. This suggested the splitting up of genera Quassia again, with all Nooteboom's synonyms listed above being resurrected as independent genera. [22]

It was later returned to genus Samadera as Samadera indica in 2008,[23] but it is still known as Quassia indica in many places. The woody and floating nature of the Samadera indica fruit explains how the species was able to be widespread across its distribution range.[24]

Distribution

Samadera indica is native to the countries (and regions) of Africa (within Tanzania, Pemba Island, Comoros and Madagascar), tropical Asia, (within India,[3] Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,[3][25]), Indo-China (within Andaman Islands, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,[3] and Vietnam), Indonesia,[26] Malesia (within Borneo, Malaya, Philippines,[9] Sulawesi and Sumatra), Papuasia (within Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, Solomon Islands), and the Pacific islands (Caroline Islands and Vanuatu).[1]

It is not found on Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.[27] It is also listed as native to the island of Singapore.[28]

Habitat

Samadera indica is found in forests at low altitudes,[9] within moist deciduous forests,[2][29] and evergreen forests.[8] Such as India, it is mostly found in evergreen forest of Western Ghats (mountain range),[30] It is also found in mixed dipterocarp forests.[7][6]

It is also found along backwaters,[2][29] or peat-based,[27] tidal, swamp forests,[12] or periodically inundated forests,[6] and along river shore.[30][27]

In Singapore, it is found in tidal swamp forests and on the edge of Mangrove forests.[7]

It is found at an altitude of up to 150–200 m (490–660 ft) above sea level.[6][7][27]

It can be growing on alluvial sites with sandy soils, but also found on limestone.[27]

Endangered

Samadera indica has been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2019. Under it's synonym, Quassia indica is listed as least concern (LC).[31]

It is listed as critically endangered (CR) in Singapore,[7] and it is listed in Sri Lanka as near threatened (NT).[25]

Cultivation

It can be cultivated for use in parks or gardens, due to its attractive foliage, fruits and general form. It can grow in well-drained soils or can tolerate moist soils. In positions in full sun and needs watering as much as generally any other shrub. It can be propagated by seed.[7]

Uses

Medicinal uses

Fruit (seed capsules) of Samadera indica (syn. Quassia indica)

Parts of the Samadera indica tree are gathered from the wild and are used medicinally in local folk medicines in several countries.[9][26][32]

Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial evaluation of extracts from bark and leaf of Samadera indica a medicinal plant used in traditional healing owing to its analgestic, antiinflammatory,[33][34] antifeedant and antimicrobial properties.[35]

In the Congo, Africa and on Madagascar, it is used to treat malaria.[9][36]

In Sri Lanka, a mixture of powdered bark or wood scrapings in warm water or coconut oil used to treated fever. The roasted seeds are pounded and applied to areas of rheumatism. The bruised leaves are applied over skin eruptions. The seeds are worn around the neck to help prevent asthma.[15]

In Ayurvedic health system, the drug Guchakaranja is derived from Samadera indica.[37] It is also known as Karinjotta in Kerala, India.[38] In the state of Kerala in India, species Samadera indica was found to have anti-tumor effects,[39] antifeedant,[40] phytotoxic,[41] antiviral,[42] anthelmintic,[43] and anti-malarial activities,[36] growth regulating activities,[44] and antioxidant,[30][45] and antimicrobial activities.[46][13]

It was used in India to vitiate (breakdown) diseases such as vata, kapha,[8] arthritis, constipation, and also skin diseases like leprosy, scabies, pruritus, and erysipelas.[47][48] In India, the bark is also used in the treatment of fevers.[48] The oil from the seeds is applied externally on rheumatic joints, and used as a liniment on bruises.[48][6]

It is a medicinal plant in Myanmar.[49]

In Burma and Indonesia, the seeds are used externally to treat rheumatism.[50][12]

In Indonesia, the bark, wood, and seeds serve as a febrifuge (substance that reduces fever) and also a tonic, and a decoction is prescribed for bilious fever. The seed, can be chewed or ground with water, is both emetic and purgative, and an oil from the seeds is a constituent in an embrocation for rheumatism. The leaves are crushed and applied to erysipelas (a skin infection).[50]

In the Philippines, the bark and wood, are macerated in water, alcohol, or wine which is then said to have tonic, stomachic, anticholeric, antifebrile, and emmenagogue properties (used to stimulate blood flow in the pelvic area and uterus). The juice from the pounded bark serves as a treatment for skin diseases, and the bark, scraped or powdered, is given in water or oil to treat "malignant fever".[50] In the Solomon Islands, water from the macerated bark is drunk as a remedy for constipation. Also the macerated leaves are mixed with coconut oil are applied to the hair to kill lice, and an infusion of the seeds is utilized as a antipyretic (substance that reduces fever).[50]

Chemical composition

All parts of the plant contain the glucoside called samaderin which is a bitter substance.[48]

The extracts were evaluated for antimicrobial effect using two strains of bacteria – Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and two species of fungi – Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans.[35] As well as bacteria species Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[51]

Quassinoids can be extracted from Samadera indica,[52][26] from the bark,[53] and seeds.[54] Such as Samaderines A and E, which have been isolated from Samadera indica.[55] Samaderines B and C were found in 2004, isolated from the seed kernels.[56] Quassinoid - Brucin D showed activity against Walker's carcinoma. While Samaderine E exhibited anti-leukaemic activity.[55][57] Quassinoids may have potential in drug formulations.[58]

A methanolic extract of Samadera indica can be used to treat skin diseases.[47]

Triterpenes Lupenone and 18α-Oleanan-19α-ol-3-one have been found in Samadera indica.[59]

It also contains triterpenoids, an anti-fungal compound.[60]

Essential oils have been isolated by steam distillation of flower and flower stalks of Samadera indica.[61]

Insecticide uses

It is also used to produce insecticides.[32] An infusion of the leaves,[6][50] or a decoction of the leaves is used to kill termites (or white ants).[62][63] Especially in the Congo and Madagascar.[36][64] In 2023, the toxic effect of the plant against termites was evaluated alongside four other different plants such as Azadirachta indica, Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale and Justicia adhatoda. It had a 74 percentage of mortality.[65]

Various extracts, including Samadera indica leaf extracts have shown to significantly decrease the reproduction ability of mosquitoes and also the hatchability of their eggs, in species such as Culex quinquefasciatus, Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti.[66]

Other uses

The macerated leaves, are mixed with coconut oil, then applied to the hair for cleansing purposes.[67]

The pale yellow wood is light and soft.[68] The wood of the tree is used locally for example in the state of Sarawak in Malaysia, where it is used for making knife-handles,[31] such as parang handles.[67]

The seeds of the plant contain about 33% oil, but it is thought difficult to get a sufficient supply of the oil for commercial use.[67]

In Singapore, it is used as an ornamental plant and planted in parks and gardens.[7] It also cultivated in Myanmar.[49]

References

  1. ^ a b c "Samadera indica Gaertn. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Sasidharan, N. (2000). "Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala Part 6: Flowering Plants,". In Lakshminarasimhan, P.; Prasanna, P. V. (eds.). Flora of Maharastra State Dicotyledones Vol. I, (Ranunculaceae to Rhizophoraceae) (State Flora Series). New Delhi: Sanctum Books.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Niepa Bark Tree". Flowers of India. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  4. ^ a b c d Umberto Quattrocchi. CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. CRC Press, p.45:2012.
  5. ^ a b c d Stannard, Brian (2000). Flora of Tropical East Africa. p. 1.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Ong, H.C. (2001). "Quassia indica (Gaertner) Noot.". In van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H.; Bunyapraphatsara, N. (eds.). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12 (2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Bogor, Indonesia.: PROSEA Foundation.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g "NParks | Samadera indica". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  8. ^ a b c d e P. K. Warrier Indian Medicinal Plants: A Compendium of 500 Species, Volume 5 (1993), p. 55, at Google Books
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Manunggal / Quassia indica/ Bitter wood : Philippine Medicinal Herbs / Philippine Alternative Medicine". www.stuartxchange.org. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  10. ^ a b c S.G. Neginhal IFS Forest Trees of South India (2020), p. 52, at Google Books
  11. ^ a b James Sykes Gamble A Manual of Indian Timbers: An Account of the Growth, Distribution and Uses of the Trees and Shrubs of India and Ceylon with Description of Their Wood-Structure. (1881; 1902), p. 64, at Google Books
  12. ^ a b c Christophe Wiart Medicinal Plants of Asia and the Pacific (2006), p. 188, at Google Books
  13. ^ a b c d e Deepa, B.P.; Chaithanneya; Rama (2015). "Phytochemical properties and Antimicrobial activities of leaf, bark, fruit extracts and silver nanoparticles of Samdera indica gaertner,". European journal of Biotechnology and Bioscience. 3 (12): 30-37. ISSN 2321-9122.
  14. ^ Ramos, Alexa Gabrielle (13 September 2021). "How To Grow and Care for Rangoon Creeper (Combretum indicum)". Florgeous. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h "Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot". Nature. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  16. ^ Heber Drury The Useful Plants of India: With Notices of Their Chief Value in Commerce ... (1873), p. 501, at Google Books
  17. ^ Marjorie C. Falanruw, Thomas G. Cole, Jean E Maka and Craig D. Whitesell Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands (1990), p. 14, at Google Books
  18. ^ "De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum: accedunt seminum centuriae quinque priores cum tabulis Aeneis LXXIX. Stutgardiae, Tubingae | International Plant Names Index". www.ipni.org. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  19. ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names. Vol. III: M-Q. CRC Press. p. 1730. ISBN 978-0-8493-2677-6.
  20. ^ Noteboom, Hans Peter (1962). "Generic delimitation in Simaroubaceae tribus Simaroubeae and a conspectus of the genus Quassia L." (PDF). Blumea. XI (2): 509–28. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  21. ^ "Quassia indica | International Plant Names Index". www.ipni.org. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  22. ^ Clayton, J.W.; Fernando, E.S.; Soltis, P.S.; Soltis, D.E. (2007). "Molecular phylogeny of the Tree-of-Heaven family (Simaroubaceae) based on chloroplast and nuclear markers". Int. J. Plant Sci. 168: 1325–1339.
  23. ^ Pandey, R.P.; Dilwakar, P.G. (2008). "An integrated check-list flora of Andaman and Nicobar islands, India". Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 32: 403-500.
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