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Many later authors relied on Pike's account, e.g., [[Stanley Karnow]] in ''Vietnam, A History'' and [[Michael Maclear]] in ''The Ten Thousand Day War''. Other early sources include [[front line]] reporters serving under a strict code of reporting conduct imposed by U.S. forces and agencies.
Many later authors relied on Pike's account, e.g., [[Stanley Karnow]] in ''Vietnam, A History'' and [[Michael Maclear]] in ''The Ten Thousand Day War''. Other early sources include [[front line]] reporters serving under a strict code of reporting conduct imposed by U.S. forces and agencies.


North Vietnam officially denounced "the hooligan lackeys who had owed blood debts to the Tri-Thien Hue compatriots and who were annihilated" in the Tet Offensive.<ref>Radio Hanoi, April 27, 1969.</ref> Captured Viet Cong documents boasted that they had "eliminated" thousands of people and "annihilated members of various reactionary political parties, henchmen, and wicked tyrants" in Hue.<ref>Stephen T. Hosmer, ''Viet Cong Repression and its Implications for the Future'' (Rand Corporation, 1970), pp. 72-8.</ref> One regiment reported that its units alone killed 1,000 victims. Another report mentioned 2,867 killed. Yet another document boasted of over 3,000 killed. A further document listed 2,748 executions.<ref>Hosmer, pp 73-4.</ref>
North Vietnam officially denounced "the hooligan lackeys who had owed blood debts to the Tri-Thien Hue compatriots and who were annihilated" in the Tet Offensive.<ref>Radio Hanoi, April 27, 1969.</ref> Captured Viet Cong documents boasted that they had "eliminated" thousands of people and "annihilated members of various reactionary political parties, henchmen, and wicked tyrants" in Hue.<ref>Stephen T. Hosmer, ''Viet Cong Repression and its Implications for the Future'' (Rand Corporation, 1970), pp. 72-8.</ref> One regiment reported that its units alone killed 1,000 victims. Another report mentioned 2,867 killed. Yet another document boasted of over 3,000 killed. A further document listed 2,748 executions.<ref>Hosmer, pp 73-4.</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 08:35, 17 March 2014

The Huế Massacre (Vietnamese: Thảm sát tại Huế Tết Mậu Thân or Vietnamese: thảm sát Tết Mậu Thân ở Huế) is the name given to the summary executions and mass killings perpetrated by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army during their capture, occupation and later withdrawal from the city of Huế during the Tet Offensive, considered one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the Vietnam War.

During the months and years that followed the Battle of Huế, which began on January 31, 1968, and lasted a total of 28 days, dozens of mass graves were discovered in and around Huế. Victims included women, men, children, and infants.[1] The estimated death toll was between 2,800 to 6,000 civilians and prisoners of war.[2] Victims were found bound, tortured, and sometimes apparently buried alive.[3][4][5]

A number of U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities as well a number of journalists who investigated the events took the discoveries, along with other evidence, as proof that a large-scale atrocity had been carried out in and around Huế during its four-week occupation. The killings were perceived as part of a large-scale purge of a whole social stratum, including anyone friendly to American forces in the region. This thesis achieved wide credence at the time, but the Massacre at Huế came under increasing press scrutiny later, when press reports exposed that South Vietnamese "revenge squads" had also been at work in the aftermath of the battle, searching out and executing citizens that had supported the communist occupation.[6][7] Moreover, in addition to the tremendous civilian casualties inflicted in the battle by U.S. forces to retake the cities from the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army[8]. Eighty percent of the city was destroyed by US Air Force's air strikes[9], and Marine Captain Myron Harrington who commanded a one-hundred-man company during the battle said: "Did we have to destroy the town in order to save it?"[10]

Burial of 300 unidentified victims

Executions

The Viet Cong set up provisional authorities shortly after capturing Huế in the early hours of January 31, 1968, and was charged with removing the existing government administration from power within the city and replacing it with a "revolutionary administration." Working from lists of "cruel tyrants and reactionary elements" previously developed by VC intelligence officers, many people were to be rounded up following the initial hours of the attack. These included Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) soldiers, civil servants, political party members, local religious leaders, American civilians and other international people.

These individuals, according to Viet Cong documents captured during and after the siege, were to be taken out of the city and held and punished for their “crimes against the Vietnamese people”. The disposition of those who were previously in control of the city was carefully laid out, and the lists were detailed and extensive. Those in the Saigon-based-state police apparatus at all levels were to be rounded up and held outside the city. High civilian and military officials were also removed from the city, both to await study of their individual cases.

Ordinary civil servants who worked for "the Saigon enemy" out of necessity, but did not oppose the communists, were destined for reeducation and later employment. Low-level civil servants who had at some point been involved in paramilitary activities were to be held for reeducation, but not employed. There are documented cases of individuals who were executed by the VC when they tried to hide or otherwise resisted during the early stages of Huế's occupation.

Within days of the capture, US Marine Corps (USMC) and US Army as well as ARVN infantry units were dispatched to counterattack and recaptured the city after weeks of fierce fighting, during which the city and its outlying areas were exposed to repeated shelling from US Navy ships off the coast and numerous bombing runs by U.S. aircraft. It was implied that during the USMC and ARVN attack, North Vietnam's forces had rounded up those individuals whose names it had previously collected and had them executed or sent North for reeducation.

It was determined by piecing together bits of information from several sources that a large number of people had taken sanctuary from the battle in a local church. Several hundred of these people were ordered out to undergo indoctrination in the "liberated area" and told afterwards they would be allowed to return home. After marching the group south 9 kilometers, 20 of the people were separated, tried in a kangaroo court, found guilty, executed and buried. The others were taken across the river and turned over to a local Communist unit in an exchange that even included written receipts.

Douglas Pike notes that, while “It is probable that the Commissar intended that their prisoners should be reeducated and returned, but with the turnover, matters passed from his control.” Sometime within the following several weeks, the communists decided to kill the individuals under their control. After being informed of this by VC defectors, local authorities released a list of 428 names of people they claimed were identified from the bones found over a 100 yard area of the Da Mai creek bed.

Philip W. Manhard, a U.S. senior advisor in Huế province, was taken to a POW camp by the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and held until 1973. Manhard recounted that during the NVA withdrawal from Huế, the NVA summarily executed anyone in their custody who resisted being taken out of the city or who was too old, too young, or too frail to make the journey to the camp.

Captured in the home of Vietnamese friends, American Stephen Miller of the U.S. Information Service was shot in a field behind a Catholic seminary.[11] Courtney Niles, an American civilian working for NBC International, was killed during an attack by communist forces while in the presence of U.S soldiers.[12]

Three professors, members of the West German Cultural Mission who taught at the Huế Faculty of Medicine, and the wife of one of the professors, were arrested and executed by the North Vietnamese and National Liberation Front during their recapture of Huế during the Tet Offensive (Feb. 1968). Their bodies, along with those of scores of Vietnamese civilians, who also were executed, were found April 5 in mass graves near Huế. The slain Germans were Professor and Mrs. Horst Krainick, Dr. Alois Altekoester, and Dr. Raimund Discher.[11]

Don Oberdorfer spent five days in late 1969 with Paul Vogle, an American English professor at Huế University, going through Huế interviewing witnesses of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong occupation. Oberdorfer classified all the killings into two categories: the planned execution of government officials and their families, political and civil servants, and collaborators with Americans; and those civilians not connected to the government who ran from questioning, who spoke harshly about the occupation, or who the occupiers believed “displayed a bad attitude” towards the occupiers.

Oberdorfer reported that in the Catholic district of Huế, Phủ Cam, virtually every able-bodied man over the age of 15 who took refuge in the cathedral was taken away and killed. In an interview with Ho Ty, a VC commander who took part in the advanced planning of a general uprising, Oberdorfer reported Ty's statement that the Communist party "was particularly anxious to get those people at Phucam... The Catholics were considered particular enemies of ours."

When Trương Như Tạng was appointed Vietcong justice minister soon after Huế, he understood this to be a critical position because the massacre had, "left us with a special need to address fears among the Southern people that a revolutionary victory would bring with it a bloodbath or reign of terror."[13] This was because, "large numbers of people had been executed" including "captured American soldiers and several other international people who were not combatants." According to Tạng, "discipline in Hue was seriously inadequate" and "fanatic young soldiers had indiscriminately shot people."[13] The massacre was, "one of those terrible spontaneous tragedies that inevitably accompany war."[13]

Discovery

A first summary was published for the U.S. Mission in Vietnam by Douglas Pike, then working as a Foreign Service Officer for the U.S. Information Agency in 1970. Pike identified three distinct phases for the executions in Huế. Phase one was a series of kangaroo court trials of local ARVN officials. The highly publicized trials lasted anywhere from five to ten minutes and the accused were always found guilty of “crimes against the people”.

Phase two was implemented when the communists thought that they could hold the city long-term, and consisted of a campaign of “social reconstruction” along Maoist dogmatic lines. Those who the communists believed to be counterrevolutionaries were singled out in this phase. Catholics, intellectuals, prominent businessmen, and other “imperialist lackeys” were targeted in order to “build a new social order”.

The last phase began when it became evident that the communists could not hold the city and was designed to “leave no witnesses”. Anyone who could identify individual VC members who participated in the occupation was to be killed and their bodies hidden.

Many later authors relied on Pike's account, e.g., Stanley Karnow in Vietnam, A History and Michael Maclear in The Ten Thousand Day War. Other early sources include front line reporters serving under a strict code of reporting conduct imposed by U.S. forces and agencies.

North Vietnam officially denounced "the hooligan lackeys who had owed blood debts to the Tri-Thien Hue compatriots and who were annihilated" in the Tet Offensive.[14] Captured Viet Cong documents boasted that they had "eliminated" thousands of people and "annihilated members of various reactionary political parties, henchmen, and wicked tyrants" in Hue.[15] One regiment reported that its units alone killed 1,000 victims. Another report mentioned 2,867 killed. Yet another document boasted of over 3,000 killed. A further document listed 2,748 executions.[16] The truthfulness of the translation of these documents have been disputed by Gareth Porter and Edward S Herman.[17]

See also

References

  1. ^ http://www.11thcavnam.com/education/hue.htm
  2. ^ Anderson, David L. The Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War. 2004, page 98-9
  3. ^ Kendrick Oliver, The My Lai Massacre in American History and Memory (Manchester University Press, 2006), p. 27.
  4. ^ Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World, edited by James Minahan, vol. 4 (Greenwood, 2002), p. 1761.
  5. ^ Pierre Journod, "La France, les États-Unis et la guerre du Vietnam: l'année 1968", in Les relations franco-américaines au XX siècle, edited by Pierre Melandri and Serge Ricard (L'Harmattan, 2003), p. 176.
  6. ^ Oberdorfer, pp. 232–233.
  7. ^ Willbanks, pp. 101–102.
  8. ^ Marilyn Young, The Vietnam Wars: 1945—1990 (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991), p. 223
  9. ^ Anatomy of a War by Gabriel Kolko. ISBN 1-56584-218-9. pages 308–309
  10. ^ Karnow, Stanley (1983). Vietnam A History. Penguin Books. p. 534.
  11. ^ a b http://obsidianwings.blogs.com/obsidian_wings/2006/01/know_hue.html
  12. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?id=r6lQ-430NL0C&pg=RA1-PA212&dq=%22courtney+miles%22%2BNBC
  13. ^ a b c Truong Nhu Trang, A Viet Cong Memoir (1985), p. 153-154.
  14. ^ Radio Hanoi, April 27, 1969.
  15. ^ Stephen T. Hosmer, Viet Cong Repression and its Implications for the Future (Rand Corporation, 1970), pp. 72-8.
  16. ^ Hosmer, pp 73-4.
  17. ^ http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/Vietnam/huemyth/mythofhuemassacre.pdf

Further reading

  • Arnold, James R., Tet Offensive 1968: Turning Point in Vietnam, London: Osprey 1990
  • Bullington, James R. "And Here, See Huế," Foreign Service Journal, November 1968.
  • Christmas, G. R. "A Company Commander Reflects on Operation Huế City," Marine Corps Gazette, April 1971.
  • Davidson, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946-1975. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1988.
  • Hammel, Eric. Fire in the Streets: The Battle for Huế, Tet 1968. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1991.
  • Harkanson, John, and Charles McMahon. "USMC & Tet ’68: There’s a Little Trouble in Huế …," Vietnam Combat, Winter 1985.
  • Krohn, Charles A., The Lost Battalion: Controversy and Casualties in the Battle of Huế, Praeger Publishers, 1993.
  • Larson, Mike, Heroes: A Year in Vietnam With The First Air Cavalry Division, Barnes & Noble, 2008.
  • Nolan, Keith William. Battle for Huế: Tet 1968. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1983.
  • Oberdorfer, Don. Tet!: The Turning Point in the Vietnam War. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
  • Palmer, Dave Richard. Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1978.
  • Phan Van Son. The Viet Cong Tet Offensive (1968). Saigon: Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces, 1969.
  • Pike, Douglas. PAVN: People’s Army of Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1986.
  • Secrets of the Vietnam War. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1990.
  • Smith, Captain George W., USA. "The Battle of Huế," Infantry, July–August 1968.
  • Stanton, Shelby L. Anatomy of a Division: 1st Cav in Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1987.
  • Tolson, Major General John J., 3rd. Airmobility: 1961-1971. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1973.
  • Truong Sinh. "The Fight to Liberate the City of Huế During Mau Than Tet (1969)," Hoc Tap, December 1974.
  • Tucker, Spencer, Vietnam. London: UCL Press, 1999
  • Vietnam Order of Battle. New York: U.S. News & World Report, Inc., 1981.
  • Young, Marilyn B., The Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990 (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991)
  • Vennama, Alje, The Viet Cong Massacre at Huế. New York, Vantage Press, 1976.

External links

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