Why Bengal owes much of its food and language to the Portuguese

The Portuguese in India

The Portuguese ventured into the Indian Ocean in 1488, establishing European maritime trade with Asia. A decade later, Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut, on the western coast of India, marking the establishment of the Estado da Índia, the maritime empire. Under the leadership of Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque, the empire relocated its headquarters to Goa. Following the capture of Malacca in Malaysia in 1511, however, the Portuguese crown focused its efforts on the Bay of Bengal.

Joao Coelho, a Portuguese merchant, was the first to reach Bengal in 1517. A year later, an official fleet (carreira) was sent from Goa, making these visits an annual tradition. The abundant production of rice, sugar, cattle, fish, and textiles in the Delta region, which includes large parts of present-day Bangladesh and West Bengal, encouraged them to seek trading opportunities.

Initially, the Portuguese crown focused on Chittagong, a port city in Bangladesh, partly due to its connections with China and Southeast Asia, and its proximity to Gaur, a densely populated centre of consumption. However, by the 1530s, with the rise of the Arakanese kings of Mrauk-u in Chittagong and the simultaneous decline of Gaur, the crown shifted its focus towards the west to establish a stronghold in the prosperous port of Satgaon in the Hooghly district.

Interestingly, by the 1540s, the crown exited Bengal and the monopoly on commodities like pepper was abolished. Speaking with indianexpress.com, historian Pius Malekandathil says, “The Portuguese had specific trade priorities in India. They focused on spices from Malabar, indigo from Gujarat, and textiles from both Gujarat and Tamil ports. Bengal, in contrast, had little to offer in terms of spices, except for long pepper from Pipli. Additionally, Bengali textiles did not enjoy the same demand as they would later during British rule.”

However, this prompted a large influx of Portuguese private merchants and bandits into western Bengal, who sought to avoid subjugation to the crown in Goa. “What was happening in the east coast or the Bay of Bengal region was a private project, in contrast to the crown-sponsored expansion on the western coast of India,” says Malekandathil.

Historian Robert Ivermee says, “Hooghly was a different kind of Portuguese colony to Goa, in the sense that it was mostly populated by traders and settlers, not administrators and soldiers. It’s a good reminder that colonialism takes many forms, even where a single nationality (the Portuguese) and region (South Asia) are concerned.”

By the 1560s, the silting of Satgaon and the growing importance of the port of Hooghly shifted trade dynamics. The Hooghly River, a distributary of the Ganges, played a crucial role in Bengal’s commercial activities. The 17th-century French traveler Francois Bernier wrote in his book Travels in the Mogul Empire, “As it is often said, in the language of Aristotle, that Egypt is the workmanship of the Nile, so it may be observed that Bengale is the production of the Ganges.”

Mughal-Portuguese relations

1579 marked a watershed year in Mughal-Portuguese relations in Bengal when Mughal Emperor Akbar issued a Farman (imperial decree) granting the Portuguese permission to establish the city of Hooghly, build churches, and propagate Christianity.

In his book Hooghly: The Global History of a River (2020), Ivermee writes that the left bank of the river was dedicated to commerce and housing, whereas the right bank, Bandel, evolved into a religious centre. During the Portuguese era, Bengal flourished as a major exporter of rice and textiles, importing Malabar pepper, Ceylonese cinnamon, and cowrie shells from the Maldives.

Deepashree Dutta, a PhD student at the Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, says “The Catholic Church and the various religious orders, Augustinians, Jesuits et al. were some of the most significant Portuguese actors operating in Bengal. While proselytisation was their primary aim, the nature of the Portuguese presence in the region allowed them to play the crucial role of mediators between the Portuguese State and the privateers. They also engaged in trade and were deeply engaged in inter-order competition and local politics in the region.”

During this period, some Portuguese resorted to piracy and the slave trade in the Bay of Bengal. In response, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan initiated the siege of Hooghly in 1632 to assert greater control over Bengal. This hostility ended a year later when Shah Jahan allowed the Portuguese to return. However, Hooghly had been transformed into an imperial port by then and never fully recovered from the aftermath of the conflict.

In the decree, Shah Jahan also granted 777 bighas of rent-free land to the Augustinian Fathers and the Christian community in Bandel, shaping its fate. “It is therefore understandable why most people think that the Portuguese heritage in Bengal is concentrated in and around Bandel on the west bank of the river, north of Kolkata,” says Tathagata Neogi, co-founder, Immersive Trails, a heritage walk and travel organisation.

From the 1630s, the Dutch and the English East India Company arrived in Hooghly. Over the next 60 years, events led to the founding of Calcutta by British leader Job Charnock in 1690. During this period, many Portuguese relocated from Hooghly to Calcutta, where the English relied on them for trade and military assistance. Portuguese was among the most commonly spoken languages in the city.

Reflecting on the remaining Portuguese estates in Calcutta, Neogi says, “The Portuguese Church still has several 17th and 18th-century graves. Although the Portuguese graveyard surrounding it is long gone, there is a derelict Portuguese cemetery in Beleghata. There’s then the area where Barrettos, a prominent Portuguese business family lived. The lead up to where their mansion was, is still called Barretto Lane.”

The Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary, commonly referred to as the Portuguese Church, situated in Burrabazar, Kolkata, was established in the year 1799 and serves as the principal cathedral for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta. (Express photo by Partha Paul)

Another unfamiliar heritage site, with a captivating Portuguese connection, is the Firingee Kalibari in Bowbazar. Built during the 19th century, it is named after Hensman Anthony, a Bengali poet and singer of Portuguese descent. Popularly known as Anthony Firingee, he is reputed to have had a profound reverence for Goddess Kali and Durga, and notably married Saudamini, a Hindu Brahmin widow.

The influence on Bengalis

Explaining the Portuguese influence in Bengal, Malekandathil says, “It happened from down below, unlike the British influence which primarily came from the top down. Portuguese renegades were typically involved in local trade, interacting closely with ordinary Bengali traders and artisans. This interaction at the grassroots level facilitated significant cultural and linguistic exchanges.”

In his book Bengali Culture Over a Thousand Years (2018), author and journalist Ghulam Murshid writes that until the Portuguese introduced chilli peppers, Bengalis relied solely on peppercorn and ginger for heat. Other significant imports included tobacco, tomatoes, papaya, and potato.

Another unfamiliar heritage site, with a captivating Portuguese connection, is the Firingee Kalibari in Bowbazar. (Wikimedia Commons)

The Portuguese also introduced cheese-making techniques which led to some of the most famous Bengali sweets, such as Rasgulla and Sandesh. Historian Sudeep Chakravarti says, “It is generally accepted that the idea of using chhana (cottage cheese) for making sweets didn’t exist before the 18th century. It is also generally accepted that the Portuguese introduced cottage cheese, or chhana, in the region of the Bengal Delta, both because they liked their queijos frescos or fresh cheeses and because they could provision their ships. There is also the live example of the ‘Bandel’ cheeses, both the fresh and dehydrated varieties, that come to us today. So, if only for the sake of roshogolla and other chhana delights and Bandel cheese: Viva Portuguesa!”

He says the greatest impact of the Portuguese on Bengal, besides food habits, is on language.

Chakravarti, in his book, The Bengalis, uses an allegory in his book to illustrate this:

“It is evident as the borō-babu, after a bath with fragrant shābān (sabão: soap), scrubs dry with a tōālé (toalha: towel) and, dressed in fresh clothes leans back with relish on his kédārā (cadeira: chair) in the front kamrā (câmara: room) of the house and looks out of the jānalā (janela: window) wondering if the view and weather would suit a tune on his béhalā (viola:violin), a puff of fine tāmāk (tabaco: tobacco), or both,” he writes.

Other words include mez (mesa/table), almari (armario/almirah), chabi (chave/key), balti (balde/bucket), saya (saia/petticoat), croosh (cruz/cross), jishu (jesus/Christ), Christan (cristao/Christian), padre (padre/priest). Even bread, called paunruti in Bengali is likely to have been introduced by them since paun is a Portuguese term. The Portuguese and Bengalis also shared the same expression for European races such as ingrez (Ingles/English) and Farasi (Frances /French) people.

The Portuguese also document the Bengali language. In the 1740s, Manoel da Assumpcao attempted to compile the first encyclopedia of Bengali words, although it was incomplete. The first Bengali prose was authored by Father Sousa, another missionary, in 1599. Lisbon is also where the first Bengali language books were printed.

The gradual disappearance

The advent of English-medium schools and other cultural shifts in Calcutta with the advent of the British sparked a robust Anglicisation process, transforming the remaining Luso-Indians into Anglo-Indians instead. After the 18th century, the Portuguese language was replaced by English across the Indian Ocean region.

Dutta believes that this process of subsumption resulted in “a more muted Portuguese heritage” in the state. Ivermee, however, says, “In Bengal, the Portuguese didn’t leave behind so many large landmarks, in part because the town of Hooghly was destroyed in 1632. And, of course, historiography about colonialism in Bengal is overwhelmingly about the British. The French, Dutch, and Danish presences in Bengal are also often overlooked.”

JJA Campos’s 1919 text, History of the Portuguese in Bengal, offers one of the earliest accounts of the Portuguese legacy in Bengal, particularly the churches. He observes that despite the Portuguese Church being refurbished, it remains the oldest place in Calcutta where Christians worshipped. Historically, the church received support from various Portuguese families in Calcutta, including the Barrettos, whose tombs are found within its grounds.

Summing up the Portuguese presence in Bengal, Chadha, says, “It has been written about since Campos published his monograph on the theme in 1919. Yet, in popular imagination, the Portuguese empire in India is associated mostly with Goa.” When asked whether it was the Portuguese who introduced Bengal to the world, she says, “It is well known that goods, information, maps, and commercial prospects of the sea route to Asia were conveyed to Europe by the Portuguese. They competed and collaborated with Asian and European merchants in a truly globalising world.”

Although the Portuguese presence in Bengal faded with the arrival of the British, their colonial rule on the west coast of India continued long after the British left. It was only in 1961 that they finally exited from Goa, Daman, and Diu.

Further reading:

1. History of the Portuguese in Bengal by Joaquim Joseph A. Campos
2. The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History by Sanjay
Subrahmanyam
3. Improvising Empire: Portuguese Trade and Settlement in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1700
by Sanjay Subrahmanyam
4. Hooghly: The Global History of a River by Robert Ivermee
5. Bengali Culture Over A Thousand Years by Ghulam Murshid and Sarbari Sinha
6. The Bengalis: A Portrait of a Community by Sudeep Chakravarti
7. Religion, Landscape and Material Culture in Pre-modern South Asia by Nupur Dasgupta
and Tilottama Mukherjee

(Nikita Mohta is an intern with indianexpress.com)