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- Author or Editor: M. Kanamitsu x
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Abstract
The effect of vertical and time interpolations of external forcings on the accuracy of regional simulations is examined. Two different treatments of the forcings, one with conventional lateral boundary nudging and the other with spectral nudging, are studied. The main result is that the accuracy of the regional simulation increases very slowly as the number of forcing field levels increase when no spectral nudging is used. Thus, for better simulation, it is desirable to have as many forcing levels as possible. By contrast, spectral nudging improves the regional model simulation when reasonably large numbers of forcing field levels, at least up to nine levels, are given. The accuracy worsens drastically when the number of forcing levels is reduced to less than nine. To improve the simulation, in particular when the forcing field is given at a coarse vertical resolution and at lower time frequency, an incremental interpolation method is introduced. The incremental interpolation in the vertical direction significantly improves the regional simulation at all numbers of forcing field levels. The improvement is largest at very low vertical resolution. Incremental interpolation in time also works excellently, allowing the use of daily output for reasonably accurate downscaling. By using a combination of spectral nudging and incremental interpolation, it is possible to make a reasonably accurate downscaling from the forcing given daily at three–five levels in the vertical direction with low overhead. This considerably reduces the amount of data currently believed to be required to downscale global model integrations.
Abstract
The effect of vertical and time interpolations of external forcings on the accuracy of regional simulations is examined. Two different treatments of the forcings, one with conventional lateral boundary nudging and the other with spectral nudging, are studied. The main result is that the accuracy of the regional simulation increases very slowly as the number of forcing field levels increase when no spectral nudging is used. Thus, for better simulation, it is desirable to have as many forcing levels as possible. By contrast, spectral nudging improves the regional model simulation when reasonably large numbers of forcing field levels, at least up to nine levels, are given. The accuracy worsens drastically when the number of forcing levels is reduced to less than nine. To improve the simulation, in particular when the forcing field is given at a coarse vertical resolution and at lower time frequency, an incremental interpolation method is introduced. The incremental interpolation in the vertical direction significantly improves the regional simulation at all numbers of forcing field levels. The improvement is largest at very low vertical resolution. Incremental interpolation in time also works excellently, allowing the use of daily output for reasonably accurate downscaling. By using a combination of spectral nudging and incremental interpolation, it is possible to make a reasonably accurate downscaling from the forcing given daily at three–five levels in the vertical direction with low overhead. This considerably reduces the amount of data currently believed to be required to downscale global model integrations.
Abstract
During the past several years, the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) continental-scale experiments (CSEs) have started to develop regional hydroclimatological datasets and water and energy budget studies (WEBS). To provide some global background for these regional experiments, the authors describe vertically integrated global and regional water and energy budgets from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)–U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Reanalysis II (NCEPRII). It is shown that maintaining the NCEPRII close to observations requires some nudging to the short-range model forecast, and this nudging is an important component of analysis budgets. Still, to first order one can discern important hydroclimatological mechanisms in the reanalysis. For example, during summer, atmospheric water vapor, precipitation, evaporation, and surface and atmospheric radiative heating all increase, while the dry static energy convergence decreases almost everywhere over the land regions. One can further distinguish differences between hydrologic cycles in midlatitudes and monsoon regions. The monsoon hydrologic cycle shows increased moisture convergence, soil moisture, and runoff, but decreased sensible heating with increasing surface temperature. The midlatitude hydrologic cycle, on the other hand, shows decreased moisture convergence and surface water, and increased sensible heating.
Abstract
During the past several years, the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) continental-scale experiments (CSEs) have started to develop regional hydroclimatological datasets and water and energy budget studies (WEBS). To provide some global background for these regional experiments, the authors describe vertically integrated global and regional water and energy budgets from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)–U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Reanalysis II (NCEPRII). It is shown that maintaining the NCEPRII close to observations requires some nudging to the short-range model forecast, and this nudging is an important component of analysis budgets. Still, to first order one can discern important hydroclimatological mechanisms in the reanalysis. For example, during summer, atmospheric water vapor, precipitation, evaporation, and surface and atmospheric radiative heating all increase, while the dry static energy convergence decreases almost everywhere over the land regions. One can further distinguish differences between hydrologic cycles in midlatitudes and monsoon regions. The monsoon hydrologic cycle shows increased moisture convergence, soil moisture, and runoff, but decreased sensible heating with increasing surface temperature. The midlatitude hydrologic cycle, on the other hand, shows decreased moisture convergence and surface water, and increased sensible heating.
Abstract
This paper presents a new Experimental Climate Prediction Center (ECPC) Coupled Prediction Model (ECPM). The ECPM includes the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) version of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) ocean model coupled to the ECPC version of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Atmospheric Global Spectral Model (GSM). The adjoint and forward versions of the MIT model forced with the NCEP atmospheric analyses are routinely used at JPL for ocean state assimilation. An earlier version of the GSM was used for the NCEP–Department of Energy reanalysis-2 project and for operational seasonal forecasts at NCEP. The ECPM climatology and internal variability derived from a 56-yr-long coupled integration are compared with the observations and reanalysis data. Though the ECPM exhibits climatological biases, these biases are relatively small and comparable to the systematic errors produced by other well-known coupled models, including the recent NCEP Climate Forecast System. The internal variability of the model resembles the observations. ECPM simulates both seasonal and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific reasonably well. The model has good skill in reproducing the mechanism of ENSO evolution as well as ENSO teleconnection patterns (including the Indian monsoon–ENSO relationship). The skill of the ECPM in predicting 1994–2006 SST anomalies over the Niño-3.4 region is shown to be comparable to other coupled models. These retrospective forecasts were used for deriving a model climatology for real-time seasonal forecasts that are currently produced and displayed at ECPC.
Abstract
This paper presents a new Experimental Climate Prediction Center (ECPC) Coupled Prediction Model (ECPM). The ECPM includes the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) version of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) ocean model coupled to the ECPC version of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Atmospheric Global Spectral Model (GSM). The adjoint and forward versions of the MIT model forced with the NCEP atmospheric analyses are routinely used at JPL for ocean state assimilation. An earlier version of the GSM was used for the NCEP–Department of Energy reanalysis-2 project and for operational seasonal forecasts at NCEP. The ECPM climatology and internal variability derived from a 56-yr-long coupled integration are compared with the observations and reanalysis data. Though the ECPM exhibits climatological biases, these biases are relatively small and comparable to the systematic errors produced by other well-known coupled models, including the recent NCEP Climate Forecast System. The internal variability of the model resembles the observations. ECPM simulates both seasonal and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific reasonably well. The model has good skill in reproducing the mechanism of ENSO evolution as well as ENSO teleconnection patterns (including the Indian monsoon–ENSO relationship). The skill of the ECPM in predicting 1994–2006 SST anomalies over the Niño-3.4 region is shown to be comparable to other coupled models. These retrospective forecasts were used for deriving a model climatology for real-time seasonal forecasts that are currently produced and displayed at ECPC.
Abstract
The NMC Global Spectral Model was integrated for one year. The model used is the same as the 1989 operational medium range forecast model except that the horizontal resolution was reduced from T80 to T40. Overall, the model was very successful in reproducing most of the characteristics of the atmospheric circulation and its seasonal evolution.
A comparison with the summer and winter integrations of Kinter et al., which were performed with the NMC model operational in 1985, shows that the changes made in the last few years in the NMC model have significantly improved its ability to reproduce the atmospheric circulation, particularly in the tropics and in the summer hemisphere. The simulation of precipitation is also much more realistic with the present model.
We also performed a 150 day simulation with a lower resolution (R16) version of the model. The stationary and transient eddy simulations were similar to that of T40 model but the zonal circulation was much poorer in the R16 model, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. This indicates that for a global simulation study a horizontal resolution of at least T40 is necessary.
Abstract
The NMC Global Spectral Model was integrated for one year. The model used is the same as the 1989 operational medium range forecast model except that the horizontal resolution was reduced from T80 to T40. Overall, the model was very successful in reproducing most of the characteristics of the atmospheric circulation and its seasonal evolution.
A comparison with the summer and winter integrations of Kinter et al., which were performed with the NMC model operational in 1985, shows that the changes made in the last few years in the NMC model have significantly improved its ability to reproduce the atmospheric circulation, particularly in the tropics and in the summer hemisphere. The simulation of precipitation is also much more realistic with the present model.
We also performed a 150 day simulation with a lower resolution (R16) version of the model. The stationary and transient eddy simulations were similar to that of T40 model but the zonal circulation was much poorer in the R16 model, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. This indicates that for a global simulation study a horizontal resolution of at least T40 is necessary.
Abstract
The National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s operational global data assimilation system’s (GDAS) atmospheric and surface thermodynamic energy cycles are presented for the Mississippi River basin where the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Continental-Scale International Project (GCIP) is under way. At the surface, during the winter, incoming solar radiation is balanced by longwave cooling. During the summer, latent and sensible cooling are equally important. In the atmosphere, thermodynamic energy convergence is also important, especially during the winter. In most places, precipitation is largely balanced by thermodynamic energy divergence. Anomalously high surface temperatures appear to be mainly related to decreased surface evaporation. Anomalously high (low) precipitation variations may also be related to anomalously high thermodynamic energy divergence (convergence). Unfortunately, residual terms, which are slightly noticeable for the GCIP climatological balances, are especially noticeable for the anomalous atmospheric balances.
Abstract
The National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s operational global data assimilation system’s (GDAS) atmospheric and surface thermodynamic energy cycles are presented for the Mississippi River basin where the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Continental-Scale International Project (GCIP) is under way. At the surface, during the winter, incoming solar radiation is balanced by longwave cooling. During the summer, latent and sensible cooling are equally important. In the atmosphere, thermodynamic energy convergence is also important, especially during the winter. In most places, precipitation is largely balanced by thermodynamic energy divergence. Anomalously high surface temperatures appear to be mainly related to decreased surface evaporation. Anomalously high (low) precipitation variations may also be related to anomalously high thermodynamic energy divergence (convergence). Unfortunately, residual terms, which are slightly noticeable for the GCIP climatological balances, are especially noticeable for the anomalous atmospheric balances.
Two large-scale precipitation datasets, one produced by the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) and the other by the Climate Prediction Center of the National Weather Service, and called Climate Prediction Center Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP), were compared. Both datasets blend satellite and gauge estimates of precipitation. And while the latter has its heritage in the GPCP, different analysis procedures and some additional types of input data used by CMAP yielded different values. This study used the error characteristics of the data to assess the significance of the observed differences. Despite good spatial and temporal correlations between the two fields some of the observed differences were significant at the 95% level. These were traced to the use of some different input data such as the use by CMAP of atoll gauges in the tropical Pacific and gauges uncorrected for wetting evaporation and aerodynamic effects. The former impacts the tropical ocean rain amounts and the latter is particularly noticeable in the Northern Hemisphere land areas. Also, the application of these datasets to the validation of atmospheric general circulation models is discussed.
Two large-scale precipitation datasets, one produced by the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) and the other by the Climate Prediction Center of the National Weather Service, and called Climate Prediction Center Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP), were compared. Both datasets blend satellite and gauge estimates of precipitation. And while the latter has its heritage in the GPCP, different analysis procedures and some additional types of input data used by CMAP yielded different values. This study used the error characteristics of the data to assess the significance of the observed differences. Despite good spatial and temporal correlations between the two fields some of the observed differences were significant at the 95% level. These were traced to the use of some different input data such as the use by CMAP of atoll gauges in the tropical Pacific and gauges uncorrected for wetting evaporation and aerodynamic effects. The former impacts the tropical ocean rain amounts and the latter is particularly noticeable in the Northern Hemisphere land areas. Also, the application of these datasets to the validation of atmospheric general circulation models is discussed.
In this paper we describe the global numerical weather prediction system of the National Meteorological Center, and review recent improvements, the evolution in skill, and current research projects and plans.
In this paper we describe the global numerical weather prediction system of the National Meteorological Center, and review recent improvements, the evolution in skill, and current research projects and plans.
Abstract
This study addresses the interdecadal trend in potential skill score as estimated from the 500-hPa height temporal correlation coefficient (TCC), based on a 50-yr 10-member ensemble GCM integration with observed SST. The skill scores are based on the perfect model assumption, in which one of the members of the ensemble is assumed to be true. A distinct decadal positive trend in the TCC in boreal winter (December–January–February) was found. This trend is shown to be consistent with the positive trend in the interdecadal time-scale temporal variance of SST. The geographical pattern of the differences of the TCC between each decade and the 50-yr period resembles the Matsuno–Gill pattern, suggesting that the increase in the TCC is due to the Rossby wave excitation induced by the anomalous diabatic heating caused by the anomalous SST. Similar interdecadal trends in the variance of the Southern Oscillation index and Pacific–North American pattern were found in both the observation and the simulation. The interdecadal trend in the variance of 500-hPa geopotential height over the continental United States, however, existed only in the simulation.
Abstract
This study addresses the interdecadal trend in potential skill score as estimated from the 500-hPa height temporal correlation coefficient (TCC), based on a 50-yr 10-member ensemble GCM integration with observed SST. The skill scores are based on the perfect model assumption, in which one of the members of the ensemble is assumed to be true. A distinct decadal positive trend in the TCC in boreal winter (December–January–February) was found. This trend is shown to be consistent with the positive trend in the interdecadal time-scale temporal variance of SST. The geographical pattern of the differences of the TCC between each decade and the 50-yr period resembles the Matsuno–Gill pattern, suggesting that the increase in the TCC is due to the Rossby wave excitation induced by the anomalous diabatic heating caused by the anomalous SST. Similar interdecadal trends in the variance of the Southern Oscillation index and Pacific–North American pattern were found in both the observation and the simulation. The interdecadal trend in the variance of 500-hPa geopotential height over the continental United States, however, existed only in the simulation.
Abstract
June 1988 has been classified as one of the hottest and driest months on record in the United States. This study used the NMC Medium-Range Forecast(MRF) T40 model to simulate circulation features of June 1988 and to investigate the relationship between sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) and circulation patterns in the Northern Hemisphere. Three control experiments have been performed using three different initial conditions, separated by one day (21, 22, and 23 May 1988) and using SSTA fixed at the starting date. The three forecasts, and their average, are remarkably skillful in the Northern Hemisphere. The observed anomaly of June 1988, a wave train with a persistent ridge in the north-central United States and a northward shifting of the jet stream in the Pacific–North America area, is very well simulated in each of the integrations. All three experiments were repeated using the same initial conditions, but with climatological SST. The wave train generated is similar to that in the control experiments, but it is not as robust. The simulated jet streams are also similar to those in the control experiments. Two experiments with the 1988 SSTA, but with initial conditions of 22 May 1987 and 22 May 1989 were also run. The circulation patterns generated by these runs are very different from those of 1988, indicating that the persistence of the anomalous ridge in the north-central United States after late May 1998 was not due to the SSTA of the May 1988 alone.
A barotropic analysis was done to obtain the normal modes associated with the 300-mb streamfuncton of the June climatology. The analysis indicates the existence of a slowly growing mode with structure similar to the anomalies of 1988. This result, as well as the numerical experiments, suggests that the persistence of the June 1988 wave train may be associated with initial conditions, which were in a rather stable regime. The SSTA may have helped to strengthen the pattern, but the wave train associated with the 1988 drought could not have been generated by SSTA alone.
Abstract
June 1988 has been classified as one of the hottest and driest months on record in the United States. This study used the NMC Medium-Range Forecast(MRF) T40 model to simulate circulation features of June 1988 and to investigate the relationship between sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) and circulation patterns in the Northern Hemisphere. Three control experiments have been performed using three different initial conditions, separated by one day (21, 22, and 23 May 1988) and using SSTA fixed at the starting date. The three forecasts, and their average, are remarkably skillful in the Northern Hemisphere. The observed anomaly of June 1988, a wave train with a persistent ridge in the north-central United States and a northward shifting of the jet stream in the Pacific–North America area, is very well simulated in each of the integrations. All three experiments were repeated using the same initial conditions, but with climatological SST. The wave train generated is similar to that in the control experiments, but it is not as robust. The simulated jet streams are also similar to those in the control experiments. Two experiments with the 1988 SSTA, but with initial conditions of 22 May 1987 and 22 May 1989 were also run. The circulation patterns generated by these runs are very different from those of 1988, indicating that the persistence of the anomalous ridge in the north-central United States after late May 1998 was not due to the SSTA of the May 1988 alone.
A barotropic analysis was done to obtain the normal modes associated with the 300-mb streamfuncton of the June climatology. The analysis indicates the existence of a slowly growing mode with structure similar to the anomalies of 1988. This result, as well as the numerical experiments, suggests that the persistence of the June 1988 wave train may be associated with initial conditions, which were in a rather stable regime. The SSTA may have helped to strengthen the pattern, but the wave train associated with the 1988 drought could not have been generated by SSTA alone.
A presentation of the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) Research Programme at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) is given. An excellent data coverage in areas previously practically void of observations has made it possible to analyze synoptic features in the tropics and the Southern Hemisphere in great detail. The studies strongly suggest that the winter circulation in the Southern Hemisphere is more intense than previously assumed. The tropical circulation shows several examples of episodes of very active interhemispheric exchange. The large-scale circulation in the tropics is dominated by a giant ascending cell over the western Pacific having a particularly strong component in the equatorial plane. This circulation is especially pronounced during the Northern Hemisphere summer. Prediction experiments show increased skill, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere and the tropics. Comparison with operational forecasts performed at ECMWF after FGGE, as well as with observing system experiments, shows that this is due to the improved data coverage during FGGE.
A presentation of the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) Research Programme at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) is given. An excellent data coverage in areas previously practically void of observations has made it possible to analyze synoptic features in the tropics and the Southern Hemisphere in great detail. The studies strongly suggest that the winter circulation in the Southern Hemisphere is more intense than previously assumed. The tropical circulation shows several examples of episodes of very active interhemispheric exchange. The large-scale circulation in the tropics is dominated by a giant ascending cell over the western Pacific having a particularly strong component in the equatorial plane. This circulation is especially pronounced during the Northern Hemisphere summer. Prediction experiments show increased skill, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere and the tropics. Comparison with operational forecasts performed at ECMWF after FGGE, as well as with observing system experiments, shows that this is due to the improved data coverage during FGGE.
