Wikipedia

Tamil culture

Tamil culture denotes the diverse culture of the Tamil people. It includes the unique art and architecture, clothing, cuisine and practices that form a part of the lives of Tamils. The Tamils speak the Tamil language, one of the ancient languages with a significant written history. Emphasis on self respect and hospitality are notable features of Tamil culture.[1]

Archaeological evidence points to the Tamilakam region being inhabited for more than 400 millennia and indicates a continuous history from more than 3,800 years ago. Historically, the region was inhabited by Tamil-speaking Dravidian people. It was ruled by various kingdoms such as the Sangam era (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) triumverate of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, the Pallavas (3rd–9th century CE), and the later Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE). European colonization began in the 17th century, and continued for for two centuries before Indian Independence in 1947. Due to its chequered history, the culture has seen multiple influences over the years and have developed diversely.

Tamils form the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and a significant portion of northern Sri Lanka. The Tamils had outside contact in the form of diplomatic and trade relations with other kingdoms to the north and with the Romans since the sangam era. The later conquests resulted in Tamil culture spreading to South and Southeast Asia. With Tamils migrating world-wide since the 19th century, the culture has become diverse and forms a significant part of the life of the people in India and other regions with significant Tamil diaspora such as Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, Middle East, Caribbean and the United States.

History

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Further information: History of Tamil Nadu and Tamilakam

Historically, the Tamilakam region, the home of the Tamil people,[2] had been inhabited for more than 400 millennia ago and has more than 3,800 years of continuous history.[3][4][5] Excavations at Keezhadi have revealed urban settlements dating to the 6th century BCE.[6] The Tamilakam region has been ruled over by many kingdoms, major of which are the Sangam era (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) rulers of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya clans,[7][2] the Pallavas (3rd–9th century CE),[8] and the later Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE).[9] The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with the Romans.[10][11] In the 11th century CE, the Chola empire expanded with the conquests of parts of present-day Sri Lanka and Maldives, and increased influence across the Indian Ocean with contacts in Southeast Asia.[12][13] This resulted in Tamil influence spreading to the regions.[14]

Before mid 20th century, the regions populated by Tamils were under European colonization for more than two centuries.[15] During the European occupation, Tamils migrated and settled in various regions across the globe.[16][17] This resulted in significant Tamil population in Southeast Asia, Caribbean, South Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles and Fiji.[18] Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such as Middle East and the Western World for employment.[19][20][18] Tamils form the majority in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in northern and eastern provinces of Sri Lanka.[21][22]

Language

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Main articles: Tamil language and Sri Lankan Tamil dialects
 
Tamil written in Tamil script

Tamil people speak Tamil, which belongs to the Dravidian languages and is one of the oldest classical languages.[23][24][25] Epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur use Tamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.[26] Tamils venerate the language is central to the Tamil identity by personifying it in the form of Tamil̲taay ("Tamil mother").[27] Though the old Tamil preserved features of Proto-Dravidian language,[28] modern-day spoken Tamil uses loanwords from other languages such as English.[29][30] The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar book Naṉṉūl which incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary work Tolkāppiyam and the Tamil grammar consists of five parts, namely eḻuttu, sol, poruḷ, yāppu, aṇi.[31][32][33] Various varieties of Tamil is spoken across regions such as Madras Bashai, Kongu Tamil, Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and various Sri Lankan Tamil dialects such as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.[34][35]

Literature

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Main articles: Tamil literature and Sri Lankan Tamil literature
 
Agathiar, poet from the first Sangam period

Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity and the classical Tamil literature is remarkably different from contemporary literature in other Indian languages.[36] It represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.[37] The earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC.[38] Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams,[39][40] the earliest of which was held on a now vanished continent to the south of India.[41][42] The sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions: iyal (poetry), isai (music) and nadagam (drama). There are no surviving works from the later two categories and literature from the first category were further classified into illakkanam (grammar) and ilakkiyam (poetry).[43] The sangam literature was broadly based on two genres, akam (internal) and puram (external) described on the five landscapes.[44][45]

The oldest surviving book is the Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar.[36][46][47] The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories: Patinenmelkanakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of the Ettuttokai ("Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppattu ("Ten Idylls") and the Patinenkilkanakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts").[48][49] The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included the Five Great Epics.[42][49][50][51] Another book of the post Sangam era is the Tirukkural, a book on ethics, by Thiruvalluvar.[52]

In the beginning of the middle age, Vaishnava and Saiva literature became prominent following the Bhakti movement in seventh century CE with hymns composed by Alwars and Nayanmars.[53][54][55] Notable work from the post-Bhakti period included Ramavataram by Kambar in 12th century CE and Tiruppugal by Arunagirinathar in 15th century CE.[56][57] In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script named 'Thambiraan Vanakkam', thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.[58] Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras between 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensive dictionaries published in the language.[59][60] The 19th century gave rise to Tamil Renaissance and writings and poems by authors such as Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, Damodaram Pillai, V. Kanakasabhai and others.[61][62][63] During the Indian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit notably Bharathiar and Bharathidasan.[64][65]

Art and architecture

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According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms called aayakalaigal.[66][67] The art is classified into two broad categories: kavin kalaigal (beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry and nun kalaigal (fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.[68]

Architecture

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The large gopuram is a hallmark of Dravidian architecture

Dravidian architecture style of temple architecture consisted of a central sanctum (garbhagriha) topped by pyramidal tower or vimana, porches or mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum and large gate-pyramids or gopurams on the quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple. Besides these, they consisted of large pillared halls and one or more water tanks or wells.[69][70] The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.[70][71][72] They are topped by kalasams (finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[73]

There are a number of early rock-cut cave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.[74][75][76] The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas in the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths and rock reliefs.[77][78][79] The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.[77][80] These gateways became regular features in the Cholas and the Pandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and the Nayaks and spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.[81][82][83] The state emblem also features the Lion Capital of Ashoka with an image of a Gopuram on the background.[84][85] Vimana, which are similar structures built over the inner sanctum of the temple are usually smaller than the gopurams in the Dravidian architecture with a few exceptions such as the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[86][87][88]

The Mugal influence in medieval times and the British influence later gave rise to a blend of Hindu, Islamic and Gothic revival styles, resulting in the distinct Indo-Saracenic architecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.[89][90][91] By the early 20th century, the art deco made its entry upon in the urban landscape.[92] In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in the modern concrete buildings.[93][94]

Sculpture and paintings

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Krishna with Rukmini and Satyabhama and his mount Garuda (12th–13th century CE)[95]

Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailed bronze icons.[96] The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.[97] Models made of a special mixture of beeswax and sal tree resin were encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.[98]

Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.[99] Sittanavasal is a rock-cut monastery and temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist of frescoes and murals from the 7th century, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.[100][101][102] Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.[103][104][105] One of the major forms of Tamil painting is Thanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century where a base made of cloth and coated with zinc oxide is painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.[106][107]

Music

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See also: Music of Tamil Nadu and Ancient Tamil music
 
Tharai and Thappattai, traditional music instruments

The ancient Tamil country had its own system of music called Tamil Pannisai.[108] Sangam literature such as the Silappatikaram from 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.[109][110] A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.[111][112] The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing of string instrument veena as a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hyms (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the ninth century, Shaivite hyms Thevaram and Vaishnavite hyms (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments. Carnatic music originated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers such Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Shyama Shastri.[113][114] Villu Paatu is an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.[115][116] Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.[117]

There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such as parai,[118] tharai,[119] yazh,[120] and murasu.[121][122] Nadaswaram, a reed instrument that is often accompanied by the thavil, a type of drum instrument are the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.[123] Melam is from a group of percussion instruments from the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.[124][125][126]

Tyagaraja Aradhana is an annual music festival conducted in Tiruvaiyaru, devoted to composer Tyagaraja where thousands of music artists congregate every year.[127] In the Tamil month of Margazhi, music concerts (katcheris) are generally conducted, popular of which include the Madras Music Season by the Madras Music Academy and Chennaiyil Thiruvaiyaru.[128][129][130]

Dance

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Main article: Dance forms of Tamil Nadu
 
A Bharatanatyam performance

Bharatanatyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated from Tamil Nadu and practiced till today.[131][132][133][134] It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India.[135][136] The dancer is usually dressed in a colorful silk sari with various jewelry, special anklets called salangai made up of small bells and hair plaited in a specific manner, decorated with flowers in a pattern called veni.[137][138][139] The dance is characterized by flexing of torso with bent legs or flexed out knees combined with various footwork and a number of gestures known as abhinaya using various hand mudras, expressions using the eyes and other face muscles.[131][140]

 
A Mayilattam folk dancer

There are many folk dance forms that originated and are practiced in the region. Karakattam involves dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on the head while making dance movements with the body.[141][142][143] Kavadiattam is part of a ceremonial act of sacrifice, wherein the dancers bear a kavadi, an arch shaped wooden stick balanced on the shoulders with weights on both the ends.[144][145] Kolattam is usually performed by women in which two small sticks (kols) are crisscrossed to make specific rhythms while singing songs.[146][147][148] Kummi is similar to Kolattam, with the difference being that hands are used to make sounds while dancing instead of sticks used in the later.[149][150] In Mayilattam, dancers dressed like peacocks with peacock feathers and headdresses perform movements to various folk songs and tunes while trying to imitate the movements of a peacock.[151][152]

Oyilattam, a traditional war dance where few men wearing ankle bells would stand in a line with pieces of colored cloth perform rhythmic steps to the accompanying music.[153][154][155] Paampu attam is a snake dance performed by young girls, who wear specifically designed costumes like a snake skin and emulate movements of a snake.[156][157] Paraiattam is a traditional dance that involves dancing while playing the parai, an ancient percussion instrument.[158][159] Puliyattam is performed by male dancers who paint themselves in yellow and black and wear masks, fuzzy ears, paws, fangs and a tail, and perform movements imitating a tiger.[160][161] Puravaiattam involves dancers getting into a wooden frame designed like the body of a horse on his/her hips and make prancing movements.[162][163] Other folk dances include Bhagavatha nadanam, Chakkaiattam, Devarattam, Kai silambattam, Kuravanji, Sevaiattam and Urumiattam.[164][165]

Performance arts

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Doll marionettes used in Bommalattam

Koothu is a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.[166] The performers wear elaborate wooden headgear, special costumes with swirling skirts, ornaments such as heavy anklets along with prominent face painting and make-up. The art is performed during festivals in open public places and is usually dedicated to goddesses such as Mariamman or Draupadi with stories drawn from Hindu epics, mythology and folklore. The dance is accompanied by music played from traditional instruments and a kattiyakaran narrates the story during the performance.[167]

Bommalattam is a type of puppetry that uses various doll marionettes manipulated by rods and strings attached to them.[168][169] The puppeteers operate the puppets behind a screen illuminated by oil lamps and wear bells which are sounded along with the movements with background music played by traditional instruments. The themes are drawn from various Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas and epics and/with local folklore.[170] Chennai Sangamam is a large annual open Tamil cultural festival held in Chennai with the intention of rejuvenating the old village festivals, art and artists.[171]

Martial arts

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Silambattam is a martial dance using a silambam, a long staff of about 168 cm (66 in) in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.[172][173] It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.[174] Adimurai (or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.[175][176][177] Varma kalai is a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sage Agastiyar and might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai or kalari.[178] Malyutham is the traditional form of combat-wrestling.[175][179]

Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such as valari (iron sickle), maduvu (deer horns), vaal (sword) and kedayam (shield), surul vaal (curling blade), itti or vel (spear), savuku (whip), kattari (fist blade), aruval (mchete), silambam (bamboo staff), kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster), kathi (dagger), vil ambu (bow and arrow), tantayutam (mace), soolam (trident), valari (boomerang), chakaram (discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).[180][181] Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped with hero stones and heroic martyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.[182]

Modern arts

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Main articles: Tamil cinema and Tamil television soap opera

Tamil Nadu is also home to the Tamil film industry nicknamed as Kollywood" and is one of the largest industries of film production in India.[183][184] The term "Kollywood" is a blend of Kodambakkam and Hollywood.[185] Samikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "Tent Cinema" in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films. The first of its kind was established in Madras, called "Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone".[186][187][188] The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first talkie was a multi-lingual film, Kalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after India's first talking picture Alam Ara.[189][190]

Clothing

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Kanchipuram silk saris worn by women on special occasions

Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses.[191][192] Tamil women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 yd (4.6 m) to 9 yd (8.2 m) in length and 2 ft (0.61 m) to 4 ft (1.2 m) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.[193][194][195] Women wear colourful silk sarees on traditional occasions.[196][197] Young girls wear a long skirt called pavaadai along with a shorter length sari called dhavani.[192] Kanchipuram silk sari is a type of silk sari made in the Kanchipuram region in Tamil Nadu and these saris are worn as bridal & special occasion saris by most women in South India. It has been recognized as a Geographical indication by the Government of India in 2005–2006.[198][199] Kovai Cora cotton is a specific type of cotton saree made in the Coimbatore region.[199][200]

The men wear a dhoti, a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[192][195][201] A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.[192][202] People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.[202]

Hospitality and cuisine

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A traditional meal served on a banana leaf
Main article: Tamil cuisine

Hospitality is a major feature of Tamil culture.[203] It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.[204][205] Rice is the diet staple and is served with sambar, rasam, and poriyal as a part of a Tamil meal.[206] Coconut and spices are used extensively in Tamil cuisine. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional meat and vegetarian dishes made of rice, legumes, and lentils with its distinct aroma and flavour achieved by the blending of different flavourings and spices.[207][208] The traditional way of eating a meal involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on a banana leaf,[209] and using clean fingers of the right hand to take the food into the mouth.[210] After the meal, the fingers are washed; the easily degradable banana leaf is discarded or becomes fodder for cattle.[211] Eating on banana leaves is a custom thousands of years old, imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.[212] Idli, dosa, uthappam, pongal, and paniyaram are popular breakfast dishes in Tamil Nadu.[213] A Tamil cuisine includes a typical virundhu for lunch with poriyal, kootu and kuzhambu.[214] Other dishes particular to the Tamil people include sevai, paniyaram, parotta and opputtu.[215]

Festivals

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Jallikattu, a traditional bull taming event held during Pongal festivities, attracts huge crowds

Pongal is a major and multi-day harvest festival celebrated by Tamils.[216] It is observed in the month of Thai according to the Tamil solar calendar and usually falls on 14 or 15 January.[217] It is dedicated to the Surya, the Sun God and the festival is named after the ceremonial "Pongal", which means "to boil, overflow" and refers to the traditional dish prepared from the new harvest of rice boiled in milk with jaggery offered to Surya.[218][219][220] Mattu Pongal is meant for celebration of cattle when the cattle are bathed, their horns polished and painted in bright colors, garlands of flowers placed around their necks and processions.[221] Jallikattu is a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.[222]

 
Tamils decorate their homes with colorful geometric designs called Kolam made from rice powder[223]

Puthandu is known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on the Tamil calendar. The festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar, as the first day of the Tamil month Chithirai and falls on or about 14 April every year on the Gregorian calendar.[224] Karthikai Deepam is a festival of lights that is observed on the full moon day of the Kartika month, called the Kartika Pournami, falling on the Gregorian months of November or December.[225][226] Thaipusam is a Tamil festival celebrated on the first full moon day of the Tamil month of Thai coinciding with Pusam star and dedicated to lord Murugan. Kavadi Aattam is a ceremonial act of sacrifice and offering practiced by devotees which is a central part of Thaipusam and emphasizes debt bondage.[227][228] Aadi Perukku is a Tamil cultural festival celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month of Adi which pays tribute to water's life-sustaining properties. The worship of Amman and Ayyanar deities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.[126] Panguni Uthiram is marked on the purnima (full moon) of the month of Panguni and celebrates the wedding of various Hindu gods.[229]

Religion

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As per the sangam era works, the Sangam landscape was classified into five categories known as thinais, which were associated with a Hindu deity: Murugan in kurinji (hills), Thirumal in mullai (forests), Indiran in marutham (plains), Varunan in the neithal (coasts) and Kotravai in palai (desert).[230] Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded as Paramporul ("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various sangam literature.[231][232] While Shiva worship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon, Murugan became regarded as the Tamil kadavul ("God of the Tamils").[233][234][235]

 
Aiyyan̲ār, guardian folk deity of Tamils

Jainism existed from the sangam era with inscriptions and drip-ledges from first century BC to sixth century AD and temple monuments likely built by Digambara Jains in the ninth century found in Chitharal and several Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, stone beds and sculptures from more than 2,200 years ago found in Samanar hills.[236][237] The Kalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over the ancient Tamil country in the 3rd–7th century CE.[238][239] Buddhism had an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later middle ages with ancient texts referring to a Vihāra in Nākappaṭṭinam from the time of Ashoka in 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found in Kaveripattinam.[240][241] Around the 7th century CE, the Pandyas and Pallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism during the Bhakti movement led by Alwars and Nayanmars.[242][53]

In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva and Parvati and Pillayar is regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as the Mudanmudar kadavul ("foremost god").[243] The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, and is also very common.[244][245] In rural areas, local deities, called Aiyyan̲ār (also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.[244][246]

The Christian apostle, St. Thomas, is believed to have preached Christianity in the area around Chennai between 52 and 70 CE and the Santhome Church, which was originally built by the Portuguese in 1523, is believed to house the remains of St. Thomas, was rebuilt in 1893 in neo-Gothic style.[247] Islam was introduced due to the influence of the Muslim rulers from the north in the medieval ages and the majority of Tamil Muslims speak Tamil rather than Urdu as their mother tongue.[248][249]

As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.[250] Atheist, rationalist, and humanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.[251]

Places of Worship
 
 
Meenakshi Temple at Madurai (left) and Nallur Kandaswamy temple in Sri Lanka

There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.[252] Most temples follow the Dravidian architecture, a distinct style of rock architecture.[69] 84 of the 108 Divya Desams, which are Vishnu and Lakshmi temples that is mentioned in the works of the Alvars are located in Tamil Nadu.[253] Paadal Petra Sthalam are 276 Shaivite temples that are revered in the verses of Nayanars in the 6th-9th century CE.[254] Pancha Bhuta Sthalam refers to temples dedicated to Shiva, each representing a manifestation of the five prime elements of nature.[255] Arupadaiveedu are six temples which are dedicated Murugan.[256] Madurai also called as "Temple city" consists of many temples including the massive Meenakshi Amman Temple with Kanchipuram, considered as one of the seven great holy cities being another major temple town with many temples dating back to the Pallava period.[257][258] Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the largest temple complex in India and the biggest functioning Hindu temple in the world with a 236 feet (72 m) tall Rajagopuram, one of the tallest in the world.[259]

Ramanathaswamy Temple located at Rameswaram island forms a part of Ram setu and is said to be sanctified by the lord Rama when he crossed the island on his journey to rescue his wife, Sita from the Ravana.[260] Namakkal Anjaneyar Temple hosts a 18 ft (5.5 m) tall Hanuman statue, one of the tallest in India.[261] There are a lot of temples devoted to lord Ganesha, major of which are the Uchippillaiyar temple in Tiruchirappalli, Eachanari Vinayagar temple in Coimbatore hosting a 6.3 ft (1.9 m) tall idol and Karpaka Vinayakar temple in Pillayarapatti.[262][263] There are a number of hill temples dedicated to lord Murugan and Amman temples across the state.[264] Swami Vivekananda is said to have attained enlightenment on a rock, located off the coast of Kanniyakumari, which houses the Vivekananda Rock Memorial since 1970.[265] There are various Hindu temples in countries with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin including South East Asia notably in Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia and Myanmar, other countries with significant people of Tamil origin like Fiji, Mauritius, Seychelles, Reunion, South Africa and Canada, Caribbean countries including Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname, countries with significant Indian migrants including United States and Australia.[266] In Sri Lanka, Murugan is predominantly worshiped by Tamil people and numerous Murugan temples exist throughout the island including Kataragama temple, Nallur Kandaswamy temple and Maviddapuram Kandaswamy Temple.[267][268] Sri Subramanyar Temple at Batu Caves temple complex in Malaysia is dedicated to Murugan, which has a 42.7-m-high statue of Murugan at the entrance, one of the largest Murugan statues in the world.[269][270]

 
 
 
Erwadi Dargah (left), Velankanni basilica (center) and Tirumalai Mahavira temple

Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district houses an 840-year-old mosque and Nagore Dargah are important places of worship for Islam.[271][272] The 16th-century Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health is located at Velankanni and was declared as a holy city by the pope is known as the 'Lourdes of the East'.[273] Major Jain temples include Kanchi Trilokyanatha temple, Chitharal Jain Temple, Mannargudi Mallinatha Swamy Temple, Vijayamangalam Jain temple, Alagramam Jain Temple, Poondi Arugar Temple, Thanjavur Adisvaraswamy Jain Temple and Kumbakonam Chandraprabha Jain Temple.[274][275] Tirumalai is an ancient Jain temple complex in the outskirts of Tirvannamalai that houses caves and Jain temples and a 16 feet (4.9 m) high sculpture of Neminatha dated from the 12th century and the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.[276] The Chudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam was built by the Srivijaya king Maravijayottunggavarman under the patronage of Raja Raja Chola I in early 11th century CE.[277]

Reference

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  1. ^ Bob van der Linden (2024). Romantic Nationalism in India: Cultivation of Culture and the Global Circulation of Ideas. Brill Publishers. p. 88. ISBN 978-9-00469-480-4. concept of self-respect...was unique to Tamil culture...
  2. ^ a b "Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  3. ^ "Archaeology – Anthropology : Sharp stones found in India signal surprisingly early toolmaking advances". 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
  4. ^ "Very old, very sophisticated tools found in India. The question is: Who made them?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 10 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
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