User:Bob Clemintime/sandbox

Estimations of microcracking in ceramics can be made using the young's modulus in the damaged material relative to the undamaged material. A damage variable, ${\displaystyle D}$, may be defined by ^[1]

${\displaystyle D=1-{\frac {E}{E_{0}}}}$

Damage tensor

(A course on Damage Mechanics)

Max shear stress

${\displaystyle \tau _{max}={\frac {Tr}{J}}+{\frac {F}{A}}={\frac {8FD}{\pi d^{3}}}+{\frac {4F}{\pi d^{2}}}}$

Spring index

${\displaystyle C={\frac {D}{d}}}$

High stresses make springs with a spring index below 4 difficult to manufacture, while springs with an index above 12 are more likely to buckle.

Critical buckling curves

Direct shear factor

${\displaystyle K_{s}=1+{\frac {1}{2C}}}$

Wahl factor

The Wahl factor incorporates shear stress as well as the stress concentration factor due to spring curvature

${\displaystyle K_{w}={\frac {4C-1}{4C-4}}+{\frac {0.615}{C}}}$

Angular deflection of helical torsion spring

${\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {ML}{EI}}}$

Angular deflection in revolutions

${\displaystyle \theta '={\frac {10.2MDN_{a}}{d^{4}E}}}$

Spring rate of torsional spring

${\displaystyle k={\frac {M}{\theta '}}\approxeq {\frac {d^{4}E}{10.2DN}}}$

Number of active turns in helical torsion spring

${\displaystyle N_{a}=N_{b}+N_{e}}$

${\displaystyle N_{e}={\frac {L_{1}+L_{2}}{3\pi D_{m}}}}$

Diameter reductions

${\displaystyle D_{m}={\frac {D}{XXXXX}}}$

Body length increase

${\displaystyle L=d(N_{b}+1+\theta )}$

Stress

${\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {32T}{\pi d^{3}}}K_{B}}$

where ${\displaystyle K_{B}}$ is a bending stress correction factor

${\displaystyle K_{B,ID}={\frac {4C^{2}-C-1}{4C(C-1)}}}$

${\displaystyle K_{B,ID}\approx {\frac {4C-1}{4C-4}}}$

${\displaystyle K_{B,OD}\approx {\frac {4C+1}{4C+4}}}$

http://springipedia.com/torsion-design-theory.asp

${\displaystyle T_{m}\approx {\frac {E\Omega }{100k}}}$

where ${\displaystyle E}$ is the modulus, ${\displaystyle k}$ is the Botlzman's constant, and ${\displaystyle \Omega }$ is the volume-per-atom in the structure.

An even more approximate estimate of the melting temperature from the modulus has been observed as the following for metals and ceramics:

${\displaystyle T_{m}\approx {\frac {E}{0.12}}}$

where ${\displaystyle E}$ is the modulus in GPa and ${\displaystyle T_{m}}$ is the melting temperature in kelvin

A variety of tests are used to measure the strength of adhesive bonds under different loading conditions. Adhesives joints are often heavily influenced by temperature, moisture, and strain rate and therefore should be controlled/ measured during the tests. Adhesive failures can occur in a variety of different ways depending on the loading conditions and the strength of the bonds of the substrate. For example, when testing the tensile strength of an adhesive, the adhesive may debond from the substrate or fail within the adhesive itself if the bond between the adhesive and substrate are strong. The loading conditions throughout the sample are often not identical, making quantitative results difficult to achieve.^[2]

Adhesive tensile testing attempts to measure the tensile strength of the adhesive bond. The tensile strength of adhesives is often difficult to measure because the failure modes typically are not solely tensile (peeling often occurs at the edges of the samples). Results are therefore often qualitative and comparative. ASTM D897 is a common standard for adhesive tensile tests.^[3]

The lap shear test is used to assess the strength of an adhesive bond under shear loading conditions. The output of the test is the stress required for failure of the adhesive bond. Lap shear tests require an adhesive bond between flat interfaces of the desired material. ASTM D2919 is a common standard for the lap shear test.^[4]

Adhesives joints are often heavily influenced by temperature and moisture and therefore should be controlled during lap shear tests.^[4]

Expand this and alter language based on multiple sources

The mechanical loss coefficient is the degree to which a material dissipates vibrational energy. It is a measure of the fractional energy dissipated for a load/unload cycle. Elastic energy is stored in a material subject to a stress/strain and dissipates when the stress/strain is relieved.^[5]

Stored elastic energy

${\displaystyle U=\int _{\sigma }^{\sigma _{max}}\sigma \,d\varepsilon ={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {\sigma ^{2}}{E}}}$

Dissipated energy

${\displaystyle \Delta U=\oint \sigma \,d\varepsilon }$

Loss coefficient

${\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {\Delta U}{2\pi U}}}$

Relationship to resonance factor, ${\displaystyle Q}$, for ${\displaystyle \eta <0.01}$

${\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {D}{2\pi }}={\frac {\Delta }{\pi }}=tan\,\delta ={\frac {1}{Q}}}$

where

• ${\displaystyle D=\Delta U/U}$ = specific damping capacity
• ${\displaystyle \Delta }$ = log decrement
• ${\displaystyle \delta }$ = phase-lag between stress and strain

${\displaystyle tan\ \delta ={\frac {E''}{E'}}}$

Microscope or telescope is used to track crack tip. Surface of sample must be highly polished. This often prevents accurate measurements in corrosive environments The measurements are typically 2-dimensional and of a single despite cracks being a 3D objects which vary through the thickness of the material.

Measures the ultrasonic reflections from the crack. The reflectivity varies with surface roughness of the crack. Crack tip plasticity also affects the ultrasonic pulse attenuation and velocity. Ultrasonic probes often cannot be used in aggressive environments and is not very sensitive to small crack growths.

Crack growth increases the specimen compliance. Calibration is required for many sample geometries which do not already have theoretical calibrations.

As the crack growths, the electrical resistance of the sample increases by reducing the size of the cross-sectional area. High current is typically needed in order to improve sensitivity. The system must be calibrated and usually uses a calibration polynomial of the form

${\displaystyle {\frac {a}{w}}=A_{0}+A_{1}\left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right)+A_{2}\left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right)^{2}+A_{n}\left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right)^{n}}$

Doyleite, Al(OH)_3, is a form of aluminum hydroxide.

Doyleite has a triclinic structure with a space group of ${\displaystyle {\bar {P}}1}$ or P1^[7].

To predict toughening provided by large scale cracking, weighted functions for the tractions across bridged crack faces have been developed. In this case, the crack shielding as a result of large-scale crack bridging can be defined by:

${\displaystyle \Delta K_{lsb}=\int _{L}\alpha \sigma (x)h(a,x)\ dx}$

where ${\displaystyle \sigma (x)}$ is the traction function along the bridge zone and ${\displaystyle h(a,x)}$ is weight function for the traction. A weight function defined by Fett and Munz is shown below.

The robustness of a material to thermal shock, or thermal shock resistance^[8] is characterized by the thermal shock parameter:^[9]

${\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {T} }=k\,{\frac {\sigma _{\mathrm {adm} }}{\alpha \,E/(1-\nu )}}\,}$,

where the further parameters is:

• ${\displaystyle \nu }$, the Poisson ratio

This formula can be simplified by introducing the brittle θ parameter:

${\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {T} }=(1-\nu )\,k\,\theta _{brittle}}$,

This formula can be simplified as:

${\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {T} }=\,k\,\theta }$,

where the theta parameter is:

${\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {\sigma _{\mathrm {adm} }}{E/(1-\nu )}}}$,

notably, this means that in this case the elasticity modulus is not the Young modulus, but rather:

${\displaystyle {\frac {E}{1-\nu }}}$,

The laser gain medium generates heat. This heat is drained through the heat sink. The transfer of heat occurs at a certain temperature gradient. The non-uniform thermal expansion of a bulk material causes the stress and tension, which may break the device even at a slow change of temperature. (for example, continuous-wave operation). This phenomenon is also called thermal shock. The robustness of a laser material to the thermal shock is characterized by the thermal shock parameter.^[9] (see above)

Roughly, at the efficient operation of laser, the power ${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {h} }}$ of heat generated in the gain medium is proportional to the output power ${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {s} }}$ of the laser, and the coefficient ${\displaystyle q}$ of proportionality can be interpreted as heat generation parameter; then, ${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {h} }=qP_{\mathrm {s} }.}$ The heat generation parameter is basically determined by the quantum defect of the laser action, and one can estimate ${\displaystyle q=1-\omega _{\mathrm {s} }/\omega _{\mathrm {p} }}$, where ${\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {p} }}$ and ${\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {s} }}$ are frequency of the pump and that of the lasing.

Then, for the layer of the gain medium placed at the heat sink, the maximal power can be estimated as

${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {s,max} }=3{\frac {R_{\mathrm {T} }}{q}}{\frac {L^{2}}{h}},\,}$

where ${\displaystyle h}$ is thickness of the layer and ${\displaystyle L}$ is the transversal size. This estimate assumes the unilateral heat drain, as it takes place in the active mirrors. For the double-side sink, the coefficient 4 should be applied.

The estimate above is not the only parameter which determines the limit of overheating of a gain medium. The maximal raise ${\displaystyle \Delta T}$ of temperature, at which the medium still can efficiently lase, is also the important property of the laser material. This overheating limits the maximal power with an estimate

${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {s,max} }=2{\frac {k\Delta T}{q}}{\frac {L^{2}}{h}}\,}$

Combination of the two estimates above of the maximal power gives the estimate

${\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {s,max} }=R{\frac {L^{2}}{h}}\,}$

where

${\displaystyle R={\textrm {min}}\left\{{\begin{array}{c}3R_{\mathrm {T} }/q\\2k\Delta T/q\end{array}}\right.}$

is thermal loading; parameter, which is important property of the laser material. The thermal loading, saturation intensity ${\displaystyle Q}$ and the loss ${\displaystyle \beta }$ determine the limit of power scaling of the disk lasers .^[11] Roughly, the maximal power at the optimised sizes ${\displaystyle L}$ and ${\displaystyle h}$, is of order of ${\displaystyle P={\frac {R^{2}}{Q\beta ^{3}}}}$. This estimate is very sensitive to the loss ${\displaystyle \beta }$. However, the same expression can be interpreted as a robust estimate of the upper bound of the loss ${\displaystyle ~\beta ~}$ required for the desired output power ${\displaystyle P}$:

${\displaystyle ~\beta _{\mathrm {max} }=\left({\frac {R^{2}}{PQ}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}.}$

All the disk lasers reported work at the round-trip loss below this estimate.^[10] The thermal shock parameter and the loading depend on the temperature of the heat sink. Certain hopes are related with a laser, operating at cryogenic temperatures. The corresponding Increase of the thermal shock parameter would allow to soften requirements for the round-trip loss of the disk laser at the power scaling.

The crack tip stress field in plane stress or plane strain conditions in a homogeneous, isotropic elastic solid, can be represented as:

${\displaystyle \sigma _{ij}={\frac {K_{I}}{\sqrt {2\pi r}}}\sigma _{ij}^{I}(\theta )+{\frac {K_{II}}{\sqrt {2\pi r}}}\sigma _{ij}^{II}(\theta )+T\delta _{i1}\delta _{j1}}$

where ${\displaystyle \delta _{ij}}$ is the Kronecker delta and ${\displaystyle r}$ and ${\displaystyle \theta }$ are polar coordinated centered on the crack tip.